tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-83386546278787872772024-03-13T19:18:34.666-07:00NeuroKuzI love neuroscienceNeuroKüzhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02219505720807067694noreply@blogger.comBlogger40125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8338654627878787277.post-78235849136154359322011-08-14T13:30:00.000-07:002011-08-14T16:46:10.909-07:00Pardon my brain<style>
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As social beings, we’re very good at letting others know
when we’ve accidentally stopped being social. When we’ve missed something
important in a conversion, we interrupt and ask: “Pardon?” “Excuse me?”
“Sorry?” “What?” “<i>Huh</i>?” Sometimes furrowing
the eyebrows a bit can suffice to communicate a sense of confusion.</div>
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We need ways to communicate when we’re lost because – let’s
face it – we get lost often. We could be looking a fellow conversationalist
directly in the eyes, convincing ourselves that we’re taking it all in as we
listen to them clearly enunciate each syllable, when in reality every word is
slipping right over our heads. “Come again?” we bid.</div>
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These lapses in attention could be driven by distracting
thoughts or events in our environment, but are such diversions necessary for a
conversation space-out to occur? A <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1053811911008585">new study</a> in press in <i>NeuroImage</i> suggests the possibility that our brains are constantly
fluctuating in and out of particular states of attention. In certain brain
states, we’re prepared to take in information and learn about it, whereas in
other brain states, new information will likely elude us.</div>
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Study participants were scanned with functional MRI as they
viewed 250 photographs of indoor and outdoor scenes, presented one at a time.
The subjects were told that after the brain scan, they would be taking a test
that would assess which scenes they recognize from the scan. In that test, the
subjects were presented with images that either had or had not appeared during
the scan, and for each image the subjects rated how confident they were that
they had previously seen the indoor/outdoor scene. Out of the 250 images, the
participants only correctly remembered some of them.</div>
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When the researchers analyzed the subjects’ brain
activations, it was found that lower levels of activation in the
parahippocampal place area (PPA, a brain region that is known to respond to
visual scenes) occurring 2 seconds before presentation of an image predicted
that an image would subsequently be correctly remembered in the post-scan test.
However, when PPA activation was a bit higher during the 2 second period before
an image was presented, the subject was likely to forget that image.</div>
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This is pretty neat. It shows that fluctuations in brain
activity <i>before</i> we are presented with
information determine whether we’ll pay attention to and remember that
information. These sorts of fluctuations may also partially explain why we
sometimes tune out of conversations.</div>
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But the neater part of this study was the follow-up. Based
on the first experiment, the researchers called downward fluctuations in PPA
activity a “good” brain state (ready to learn and remember a scene image) and
upward fluctuations in PPA activity a “bad” brain state (likely not ready to
process the image). The researchers used a technology known as “<a href="http://neuroskeptic.blogspot.com/2010/08/real-time-fmri.html">real-time fMRI</a>”
to monitor “good” or “bad” fluctuations in brain state as they were happening.
When either a good or bad brain state occurred, a scene image was presented. As
expected, when good brain states triggered an image, 2 hours later the image
was more likely to be remembered than when a bad brain state had initially triggered
an image.</div>
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This real-time fMRI study is particularly interesting
because it demonstrates that fMRI can do more than just identify the <a href="http://neuroskeptic.blogspot.com/2010/10/brain-scans-prove-that-brain-does-stuff.html">neural</a>
<a href="http://crackingtheenigma.blogspot.com/2011/08/on-neural-correlates-and-causation.html">correlates</a> of human behaviours or perceptions. Rather than using stimuli to
elicit brain activation, this study used brain activation to drive stimulus
presentation and <i>cause</i> a certain
behaviour (good or bad learning). Using brain activity to elicit stimuli, we can
get closer to the question of a <i>causal</i>
relationship that can otherwise only be addressed by inducing brain damage or
using brain stimulation/other techniques to interrupt neural activity.</div>
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This study also might have implications for education programs
that require “optimized” brain states for efficient learning to occur. And of
course, there may be implications for optimizing everyday conversations. Next
time you accidentally drift out of a conversation, consider adding the phrase “pardon
my brain” to your repertoire of strategies for communicating that you’re not
all there at the moment.</div>
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<b>Reference:</b><br />
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<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=NeuroImage&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21821136&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=When+the+brain+is+prepared+to+learn%3A+Enhancing+human+learning+using+real-time+fMRI.&rft.issn=1053-8119&rft.date=2011&rft.volume=&rft.issue=&rft.spage=&rft.epage=&rft.artnum=&rft.au=Yoo+JJ&rft.au=Hinds+O&rft.au=Ofen+N&rft.au=Thompson+TW&rft.au=Whitfield-Gabrieli+S&rft.au=Triantafyllou+C&rft.au=Gabrieli+JD&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Psychology%2CNeuroscience">Yoo JJ, Hinds O, Ofen N, Thompson TW, Whitfield-Gabrieli S, Triantafyllou C, & Gabrieli JD (2011). When the brain is prepared to learn: Enhancing human learning using real-time fMRI. <span style="font-style: italic;">NeuroImage</span> PMID: <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21821136" rev="review">21821136</a></span>
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<br />NeuroKüzhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02219505720807067694noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8338654627878787277.post-2113986842905955692010-12-10T09:01:00.000-08:002010-12-10T09:01:11.175-08:00Financial incentives and the brain's reward system<i>Neuroeconomics</i> is a big buzzword.<br />
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Behavioural economics and the psychology of decision-making have rich histories, but with emerging brain imaging technology, we're now able to peer into some of the intricacies of neural processes as they occur while someone is making an important financial decision. The hope is that studies of brain activity will help guide economic theory and practice.<br />
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In a <a href="http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2010/11/05/1013305107.abstract">study</a> recently published in <i>PNAS</i>, Japanese researchers used functional MRI to examine brain responses to a phenomenon that challenges current economic theories, known as the "undermining effect." They found that people who were most susceptible to this effect also showed greatest changes in brain responses while playing a game that involved financial incentives.<br />
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The undermining effect is a well-known psychological phenomenon in which a person is less likely to voluntarily engage in a task after performing that task for some sort of extrinsic reward, such as money or good grades. An example is a potential effect of schooling -- students who are forced to read Shakespeare because they are being graded on it are probably less likely to read Shakespeare for fun afterward than someone who didn't study Shakespeare in school. <br />
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The researchers investigated the neural basis of the undermining effect by dividing study participants into two groups and scanning each person's brain twice. Both groups participated in a fun task, called the "stopwatch" task, wherein subjects viewed a stopwatch timer going from zero to five seconds, and they had to press a button within 50 milliseconds of the 5 second time point (if you don't believe this sounds fun, try it for yourself with a digital watch). One group received financial rewards (200 Japanese Yen or about $2.20) for doing this correctly, while the other group didn't receive performance-based rewards. The group receiving financial rewards showed greater activity in areas of the brain previously associated with award, the anterior striatum and midbrain, when subjects were winning money.<br />
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Then participants got out of the brain scanner and waited in a quiet room, where they had free time to play the fun game or do anything else. As predicted by the undermining effect, those who were receiving financial rewards for their earlier performance on the fun game spent less time playing the fun game than those who weren't receiving awards. Then all subjects got back into the brain scanner, and they performed the fun task again, but crucially this time nobody received any financial rewards. More free time was given after the second scan, and once again the subjects who had earlier received money for their performance spent less time playing the fun game.<br />
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The most interesting finding revealed by analysis of the brain activity was that individuals who played the fun game the least during free time also showed the greatest differences in reward-related brain activity between the two brain scans. In other words, those who felt most rewarded by financial incentives (as measured by brain activity) were the same individuals who were least likely to engage in the fun game when given free time. This suggests that the undermining effect is strongest in individuals who think of money as a reward.<br />
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If the goal of neuroeconomics is to reveal information about behaviour that cannot be attained through psychological testing alone, this study appears to have succeeded. Importantly, it shows that each brain responds differently to incentives, and reward-related brain activity can predict the undermining effect within an individual. This is particularly interesting because it shows that not all individuals should be treated as equal in economic models of decision-making and incentive-driven behaviour.<br />
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The findings also have implications for policymakers who often implement incentives in domains such as public health and schooling. As demonstrated by the undermining effect, removing extrinsic incentives to engage in an activity can have damaging effects on the desire to voluntarily engage in that activity.<br />
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As to whether the study will succeed in impacting economic theory and practice -- that's for the economists to determine.<br />
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<b>Reference:</b> <br />
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<a href="http://www.researchblogging.org/" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="ResearchBlogging.org" src="http://www.researchblogging.org/public/citation_icons/rb2_mid.png" style="border: 0pt none;" /></a><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21078974&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=From+the+Cover%3A+Neural+basis+of+the+undermining+effect+of+monetary+reward+on+intrinsic+motivation.&rft.issn=0027-8424&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=107&rft.issue=49&rft.spage=20911&rft.epage=6&rft.artnum=&rft.au=Murayama+K&rft.au=Matsumoto+M&rft.au=Izuma+K&rft.au=Matsumoto+K&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Psychology%2CSocial+Science%2CNeuroscience%2CCancer%2C+Hematology">Murayama K, Matsumoto M, Izuma K, & Matsumoto K (2010). From the Cover: Neural basis of the undermining effect of monetary reward on intrinsic motivation. <span style="font-style: italic;">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 107</span> (49), 20911-6 PMID: <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21078974" rev="review">21078974</a></span>NeuroKüzhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02219505720807067694noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8338654627878787277.post-89451131700528088652010-11-01T20:52:00.000-07:002010-11-01T20:52:58.741-07:00Write for your brainRemember the days when writing by hand was more common than typing?<br />
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While those days may be gone, the ability to write by hand is indisputably still useful. This is why getting <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writer%27s_cramp"><i>writer's cramp</i></a> -- an often-painful condition that inhibits one's ability to write -- can be quite an annoyance.<br />
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Luckily, there are several forms of intervention that can be effective in alleviating writer's cramp. In a <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20708692">new study</a> published in <i>NeuroImage</i>, Oliver Granert and colleagues examined how a couple of treatments for writer's cramp affect more than just the ability to write -- they were interested in how training the hand to write changes brain structure and function.<br />
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The researchers examined 14 patients with writer's cramp who were part of a clinical trial that assessed two forms of treatment. All 14 patients had their affected hand, wrist, and lower arm immobilized with a splint for 4 weeks prior to treatment. Then for 8 weeks, half of the patients trained their cramp-hand with writing movements using a pen attached to the bottom of a finger splint, and the other half trained finger movements using therapeutic putty (I'm not sure if they used <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silly_Putty">Silly Putty</a>, but if they did, I'm upset that I wasn't eligible to be subject).<br />
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The researchers took MRI's of the subjects to assess their brain structure at four points in time: week 0 (before treatment), week 4 (after immobilization), week 8 (after 4 weeks of training), and week 12 (after 8 weeks of training). At these four points in time, a functional measure of brain activity was also taken: the area of the brain that controls movement of the writing hand (M1<span style="font-size: xx-small;">HAND</span>) was stimulated with electromagnetic induction to activate hand muscles, causing movement. The minimum amount of stimulation required to cause movement in the hand was taken as a measure of 'excitability' -- an assessment of how easily the hand can be moved by brain stimulation.<br />
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Both forms of training (writing-movements and putty-playing) were equally effective in reducing the symptoms of writer's cramp. After 4 weeks of immobilization, the grey matter of the brain area that controls movement of the hand decreased in volume, but 4 weeks after motor training the volume increased, and 8 weeks after motor training the volume increased even more. The findings from magnetic stimulation of M1<span style="font-size: xx-small;">HAND</span> paralleled the changes in brain structure, in that the hand was less easily excitable after immobilization, but gradually became more easily excitable after motor training.<br />
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This study is interesting because it essentially examined the effects of both <i>de-</i>training <i>and</i> training on brain structure. Changes in brain structure reflected what was happening in terms of training; when the hand was immobilized, the brain area controlling hand movement shrank, but when the hand was mobilized with training, the same brain area grew. Most studies that investigate brain plasticity examine the effects of training -- alone -- on structural changes (e.g. measure brain volume; get subjects to exercise or meditate; measure brain volume again). But investigating opposite forms of training and observing opposite effects on brain structure provides more convincing evidence for a causal relationship between behaviour and anatomy.<br />
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Furthermore, the positive relationship between brain structural change and excitability of the hand provides evidence that changes in structure were activity-driven.<br />
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It was remarkable how fast the brain changed in response to both training and de-training in this study. I think of times in my life during elementary/high school, when I would write every day, but then I would basically stop writing for the whole summer. When I would come back to school in September, writing felt strange, and I didn't have the same effortless control over my pen that I left with at the end of the previous school-year. My comfort with the pen would then gradually increase as I began to write regularly again. It would be unsurprising if, in fact, these changes in writing ability were caused by my ever-changing brain, an anatomical shadow of my experiences.<br />
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<b>Reference:</b><br />
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<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=NeuroImage&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20708692&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=Manual+activity+shapes+structure+and+function+in+contralateral+human+motor+hand+area.&rft.issn=1053-8119&rft.date=2011&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=1&rft.spage=32&rft.epage=41&rft.artnum=&rft.au=Granert+O&rft.au=Peller+M&rft.au=Gaser+C&rft.au=Groppa+S&rft.au=Hallett+M&rft.au=Knutzen+A&rft.au=Deuschl+G&rft.au=Zeuner+KE&rft.au=Siebner+HR&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Biology%2CPsychology%2CNeuroscience">Granert O, Peller M, Gaser C, Groppa S, Hallett M, Knutzen A, Deuschl G, Zeuner KE, & Siebner HR (2011). Manual activity shapes structure and function in contralateral human motor hand area. <span style="font-style: italic;">NeuroImage, 54</span> (1), 32-41 PMID: <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20708692" rev="review">20708692</a></span>NeuroKüzhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02219505720807067694noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8338654627878787277.post-27542415275042915352010-10-21T22:11:00.000-07:002010-10-21T22:13:03.274-07:00The faithful Christian seizureWhen I sit down to use my computer, the first thing I usually do is double-click the icon that opens up an internet browser. I do this so often, that even when I need to use the computer for purposes other than internet-browsing, I mindlessly open up the internet browser anyway. This action is an example of a <i>learned automatism</i> -- an unconscious behaviour that is generated as a result of trained associations in previous experiences.<br /><br />Learned automatisms can last a long time, and the contexts in which they are acquired and retained can vary substantially. A couple of bizarre reports suggest that Christian individuals who learned to make the sign-of-the-cross hand gesture (also known as <i>Signum Crucis</i>) after having epileptic seizures may exemplify a form of long-lasting, deeply-engrained learned automatism.<br /><br />In <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19059360">one</a> of the reports, 4 out 530 epileptic patients at a clinic in Brazil displayed sign-of-the-cross gestures as automatic movements during seizures. None of the patients were aware of their own movements. The researchers evaluated these patients with electroencephalography (EEG) to measure electrical brain activity while seizures were experienced.<br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_xwcoDFM3XL0/TMEdPzfxu4I/AAAAAAAAADo/YvQ8CixVCtc/s1600/christian+seizure.jpg"><img style="float: right; margin: 0pt 0pt 10px 10px; cursor: pointer; width: 320px; height: 78px;" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_xwcoDFM3XL0/TMEdPzfxu4I/AAAAAAAAADo/YvQ8CixVCtc/s320/christian+seizure.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5530733974746413954" border="0" /></a><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />The figure above shows what the electrical brain activity of one of the four patients looked like at the time of seizure onset (first arrow), seizure duration, and sign-of-the-cross gesture onset (second arrow). The activity was measured at the right temporal lobe, the area in which all four patients regularly experienced seizures. All four patients were Christian and were raised in a religious manner, but it was not reported whether the patients learned the sign-of-the-cross gesture at a young age nor if they had a history of intentionally making these gestures at the time of seizures.<br /><br />However, a <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19393765">second</a> case report of an epileptic patient in Toronto demonstrates that the sign-of-the-cross gesture during seizures may be a learned automatism. The patient wasn't aware that she was making the cross gesture during her seizures, but when told that she was doing it, she explained that during childhood her mother used to teach her to cross herself at the end of her seizures. The authors of this study speculate that the patient was trained to make the cross gesture during seizures, and somehow a neural memory circuit for making the gesture gets recruited by spontaneous brain activity during her seizures.<br /><br />This patient also had seizures in the right temporal lobe -- the same area as the four patients in the first study. Areas of the temporal lobe have been implicated in religious cognitive-emotional experience, although these findings are controversial. The association between epilepsy and religion has a rich history, with early Greeks referring to epilepsy as the "sacred disease."<br /><br />However, although these cases provide an interesting insight to consciousness, it is unlikely that there is something special or miraculous about the sign-of-the-cross gesture during seizures. If the movement is due to a learned automatism, or some other mechanism, other gestures can likely be trained to be associated with seizures too. Maybe even single-clicking to close internet browsers.<br /><br /><b>References:</b><br /><br /><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=Epilepsy+%26+behavior+%3A+E%26B&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19059360&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=Sign+of+the+Cross+%28Signum+Crucis%29%3A+observation+of+an+uncommon+ictal+manifestation+of+mesial+temporal+lobe+epilepsy.&rft.issn=1525-5050&rft.date=2009&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=2&rft.spage=400&rft.epage=3&rft.artnum=&rft.au=Lin+K&rft.au=Marx+C&rft.au=Caboclo+LO&rft.au=Centeno+RS&rft.au=Sakamoto+AC&rft.au=Yacubian+EM&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Psychology%2CNeuroscience">Lin K, Marx C, Caboclo LO, Centeno RS, Sakamoto AC, & Yacubian EM (2009). Sign of the Cross (Signum Crucis): observation of an uncommon ictal manifestation of mesial temporal lobe epilepsy. <span style="font-style: italic;">Epilepsy & behavior : E&B, 14</span> (2), 400-3 PMID: <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19059360" rev="review">19059360</a></span><br /><br /><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=Epilepsy+%26+behavior+%3A+E%26B&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19393765&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=The+sign+of+the+cross+as+a+learned+ictal+automatism%3F&rft.issn=1525-5050&rft.date=2009&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=3&rft.spage=394&rft.epage=8&rft.artnum=&rft.au=Wennberg+R&rft.au=McAndrews+MP&rft.au=Zumsteg+D&rft.au=Velazquez+JL&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Psychology%2CNeuroscience">Wennberg R, McAndrews MP, Zumsteg D, & Velazquez JL (2009). The sign of the cross as a learned ictal automatism? <span style="font-style: italic;">Epilepsy & behavior : E&B, 15</span> (3), 394-8 PMID: <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19393765" rev="review">19393765</a></span>NeuroKüzhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02219505720807067694noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8338654627878787277.post-34866593182014691752010-09-13T19:35:00.000-07:002010-09-13T19:35:28.861-07:00The wandering male versus female brainThere has certainly been a good amount of recent controversy over the science of sex differences and the brain. Pop-science books such as <a href="http://www.amazon.ca/Male-Brain-Louann-Brizendine-M-D/dp/0767927532"><i>The Male Brain</i></a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Female_Brain_%28book%29"><i>The Female Brain</i></a> that emphasize (and probably exaggerate) sex differences have drawn <a href="http://neuronarrative.wordpress.com/2010/03/25/the-male-brain-shows-the-problem-with-many-pop-science-books-they-lack-science/">major</a> <a href="http://neurokuz.blogspot.com/2010/03/biological-differences-define-male-and.html">criticism</a>. A couple of <a href="http://www.amazon.com/Delusions-Gender-Society-Neurosexism-Difference/dp/0393068382/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1284420009&sr=8-1">new</a> <a href="http://www.amazon.com/Brain-Storm-Flaws-Science-Differences/dp/0674057309/ref=pd_sim_b_1">books</a> expose flaws in the stereotypical 'men think about sex every 5 seconds because they are programmed to' theory and related ideologies.<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_xwcoDFM3XL0/TI7RK0SqeCI/AAAAAAAAADg/hvuxzcmIZQE/s1600/femalemale.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="213" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_xwcoDFM3XL0/TI7RK0SqeCI/AAAAAAAAADg/hvuxzcmIZQE/s400/femalemale.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>The above figure summarizes the well-accepted theory of male versus female brain function. A new groundbreaking <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20725910">study</a> of brain activity in males and females at rest has brought the theory into question.<br />
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It turns out that, when males and females are scanned by fMRI while told to close their eyes and not think about anything in particular, their brain activations are virtually the same.<br />
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Researchers examined the brain activity of 26 females and 23 males who rested in a scanner and daydreamed. Three different well-characterized neural networks were analyzed for differences between males and females: the executive control network, the salience network, and the default mode network. The first two networks include several brain regions that have been associated with cognitive task performance in many previous studies. When subjects are at rest, these cognitive networks are deactivated but the resulting signal provides insight to their intrinsic behaviour. The researchers chose to look at these 2 cognitive networks because of mixed findings from previous work that indicated possible differences between associated male and female cognitive performance and brain activity. However, when the signals among different regions within these networks were compared (in a functional connectivity analysis), no differences between males and females were found.<br />
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The third network that was analyzed (default mode network) is a network that is activated when subjects are at rest. Although the function of the default mode network is controversial, activity in the brain regions of the network are thought to be associated with daydreaming, thinking about the past and future, and gauging others' perspectives. Or if you accept the classic theory of males versus female brain function, this is the network that represents thoughts of sex and lame excuses for men, and thoughts of shopping and musical sitcoms for women. The problem is: no differences between males and females in functional connectivity of the default mode network were found either.<br />
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It should be noted that the findings did not match the hypothesis of the researchers, who thought that differences between the sexes would be found because that would support the findings of previous reports. However, this study had more subjects than most previous studies on male versus female brain differences, so the statistical power is higher. Furthermore, this is the first study to directly investigate male-female differences in <i>resting</i> brains, so the findings do not necessarily contradict other studies that involved concentration or attention.<br />
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The researchers go as far as to suggest that resting state fMRI studies do not need to be controlled for sex because males and females have the same brain activity anyway.<br />
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Now that this blog post is done I feel my beer lobe lighting up and telling me to grab a cold one. Wait a second... is that possible? <br />
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<span style="float: left; padding: 5px;"><a href="http://www.researchblogging.org/"><img alt="ResearchBlogging.org" src="http://www.researchblogging.org/public/citation_icons/rb2_large_gray.png" style="border: 0pt none;" /></a></span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=Human+brain+mapping&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20725910&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=Cognitive+and+default-mode+resting+state+networks%3A+Do+male+and+female+brains+%22rest%22+differently%3F&rft.issn=1065-9471&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=&rft.issue=&rft.spage=&rft.epage=&rft.artnum=&rft.au=Weissman-Fogel+I&rft.au=Moayedi+M&rft.au=Taylor+KS&rft.au=Pope+G&rft.au=Davis+KD&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Neuroscience">Weissman-Fogel I, Moayedi M, Taylor KS, Pope G, & Davis KD (2010). Cognitive and default-mode resting state networks: Do male and female brains "rest" differently? <span style="font-style: italic;">Human brain mapping</span> PMID: <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20725910" rev="review">20725910</a></span>NeuroKüzhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02219505720807067694noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8338654627878787277.post-91207634207824694412010-09-08T20:19:00.000-07:002011-02-13T13:19:27.827-08:00Neuroscience, Psychology and InceptionIf you're a neuroscience nerd and you saw the movie <i>Inception</i>, you probably couldn't help but think of some kind of neuro-theory to explain the plot or themes of the film. It seems that this is the case, anyhow, in the neuroscience blogosphere where there is no shortage of articles on <i>Inception</i> from a neuroscience perspective. Here is a list of good articles:<br />
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Malcolm MacIver at the blog <a href="http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/sciencenotfiction/2010/08/10/inception-and-the-neuroscience-of-sleep/">Science Not Fiction</a> provides a more in-depth look at current research on the neuroscience of sleep with reference to <span style="font-style: italic;">Inception</span>.<br />
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The <a href="http://www.stanford.edu/group/neurostudents/cgi-bin/neuroblog/inception-a-neuroscientists-review-pt-1/">Stanford Neuroblog</a> gives even more detail on the neuroscience of sleep and <i>Inception</i> (and promises to come out with part 2 of this discussion).<br />
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Christof Koch reviews Inception in <a href="http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v467/n7311/full/467032b.html">Nature</a>, explaining that <i>"Inception</i> is a visionary science-fiction film that does for dreaming what <i>The Matrix</i> did for virtual reality in 1999."<br />
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<a href="http://neuroskeptic.blogspot.com/2010/07/inception-for-dummies.html">Neuroskeptic</a> describes how it is possible to induce inception, or the planting of an idea into one's mind, with a little modern neuroscience.<br />
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Jonah Lehrer at <a href="http://www.wired.com/wiredscience/2010/07/the-neuroscience-of-inception/">the Frontal Cortex</a> explains that <span style="font-style: italic;">Inception</span> is about movie-making and movie-watching by describing similarities in the brain during sleep versus movie-watching.<br />
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Over at <a href="http://mindhacks.com/2010/09/05/the-labyrinth-of-inception/">Mind Hacks</a>, a compelling case is made that <i>Inception</i> borrows more from Jungian psychology than it does from contemporary neuroscience.<br />
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And of course, I posted <a href="http://neurokuz.blogspot.com/2010/07/inception.html">my interpretation</a> of <span style="font-style: italic;">Inception</span> here after I saw the movie a couple of months ago.NeuroKüzhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02219505720807067694noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8338654627878787277.post-31489271405796356862010-07-29T21:32:00.000-07:002010-07-29T21:32:43.610-07:00Endocannabinoids and the runner's highThroughout most of human history, our hunter-gatherer ancestors had to engage in physical activity to obtain food. But nowadays we can drive to the supermarket, briefly walk through its aisles, check-out, then drive back home. This may seem like a luxury, but evolution hasn’t prepared us for such a drastic shift in behaviour.<br /><br />A possible explanation for the “runner’s high,” a feeling of intense euphoria associated with going on a long run, is that our brains are stuck thinking that lots of exercise should be accompanied by a reward. Perhaps our ancestors who were able to achieve the runner’s high while hunting for food ran more often than those who could not achieve the high. These ‘high-achievers’ (no pun intended) would gather more food as a result of their enhanced motivation, and would be more fit to pass on their genes to the next generation.<br /><br />Anecdotal reports of the runner’s high often come from endurance runners. However, there has been little scientific study of the runner’s high, so it is difficult to speculate about its role or mechanism. The traditional, widely-publicized explanation for the runner’s high is an “endorphin rush” that inhibits pain during vigorous exercise. However, other chemicals that potentially contribute to the high are epinephrine, serotonin, dopamine and endocannabinoids.<br /><br />In a <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20138171">study</a> recently published in <i>Experimental Neurology</i>, investigators deleted the gene for the cannabinoid receptor CB1 in mice, and examined how this change to the endocannabinoid system affects voluntary running. The mice with CB1 deletions exhibited 30-40% less running activity than mice that did not get deletions. The knockout mice also had reduced hippocampal neurogenesis, or neuron birth that is known to be induced by exercise, but they were able to increase neurogenesis at a regular rate when they exercised.<br /><br />These findings indicate that the endocannabinoid system is somehow involved in the regulation of voluntary running activity. In particular, a reduction in CB1 levels could lead to less binding of endocannabinoids to receptors in brain circuits that drive motivation to exercise. It appears that the endocannabinoid system does not play a major role in controlling neurogenesis caused by exercise.<br /><br />It is easy to point to endocannabinoids as a candidate mediator of the runner’s high, since endocannabinoids are the body’s natural tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the psychoactive ingredient of marijuana. The study described here doesn’t directly speak much to this proposed parallel, but if the motivation to exercise is considered to be related to the runner’s high, then endocannabinoids may be a driving factor to achieve the runner’s high.<br /><br />Physical activity has been associated with obtaining rewards throughout evolution. Today we might be left with a certain high associated with the <i>prospect</i> of obtaining a reward – a motivational high mediated by endocannabinoids. This ‘pre-runner’s high’ is an anticipation of the runner’s high, so the two experiences cannot necessarily be thought of as separate. That is – of course – assuming that the runner’s high happened often enough in history that our brains continue to develop to anticipate it. But even if the runner’s high was not common throughout our past, the peaceful feeling that almost everyone experiences after an exhausting run or bike ride should be adequate motivation to start moving.<br /><br />Endocannabinoids have <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14625449">previously been shown</a> to increase in blood levels after exercise, so there is still a possibility that endocannabinoids mediate the runner’s high. It is most likely, however, that many chemicals converge on brain circuits that underlie the experience. Given the newly discovered role of endocannabinoids in motivation for exercise, it would be unsurprising if endocannabinoids played an important part in directly inducing the runner’s high.<br /> <br />So kids out there: don’t smoke weed if you wish to activate your CB1 receptors. Run.<br /><br /><b>References:</b><br /><br /><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=Experimental+neurology&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20138171&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=CB1+receptor+deficiency+decreases+wheel-running+activity%3A+consequences+on+emotional+behaviours+and+hippocampal+neurogenesis.&rft.issn=0014-4886&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=224&rft.issue=1&rft.spage=106&rft.epage=13&rft.artnum=&rft.au=Dubreucq+S&rft.au=Koehl+M&rft.au=Abrous+DN&rft.au=Marsicano+G&rft.au=Chaouloff+F&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Psychology%2CNeuroscience">Dubreucq S, Koehl M, Abrous DN, Marsicano G, & Chaouloff F (2010). CB1 receptor deficiency decreases wheel-running activity: consequences on emotional behaviours and hippocampal neurogenesis. <span style="font-style: italic;">Experimental neurology, 224</span> (1), 106-13 PMID: <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20138171" rev="review">20138171</a></span><br /><br /><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=Experimental+neurology&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20353785&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=Endocannabinoids+and+voluntary+activity+in+mice%3A+runner%27s+high+and+long-term+consequences+in+emotional+behaviors.&rft.issn=0014-4886&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=224&rft.issue=1&rft.spage=103&rft.epage=5&rft.artnum=&rft.au=Fuss+J&rft.au=Gass+P&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Psychology%2CNeuroscience">Fuss J, & Gass P (2010). Endocannabinoids and voluntary activity in mice: runner's high and long-term consequences in emotional behaviors. <span style="font-style: italic;">Experimental neurology, 224</span> (1), 103-5 PMID: <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20353785" rev="review">20353785</a></span>NeuroKüzhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02219505720807067694noreply@blogger.com4tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8338654627878787277.post-41935943563781379982010-07-25T23:18:00.000-07:002010-07-29T21:33:19.468-07:00The neural response to emotional robots<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=PLoS+ONE&rft_id=info%3A%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=Brain+Response+to+a+Humanoid+Robot+in+Areas+Implicated+in+the+Perception+of+Human+Emotional+Gestures&rft.issn=&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=&rft.issue=&rft.spage=&rft.epage=&rft.artnum=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.plosone.org%2Farticle%2Finfo%253Adoi%252F10.1371%252Fjournal.pone.0011577%3Bjsessionid%3D91B130711C2AD4C9804D1C8285A6DB39.ambra02&rft.au=Thierry+Chaminade1%2C2%2A%2C+Massimiliano+Zecca3%2C4%2C5%2C+Sarah-Jayne+Blakemore6%2C+Atsuo+Takanishi&rft.au=Chris+D.Frith1&rft.au=Silvestro+Micera&rft.au=Paolo+Dario&rft.au=Giacomo+Rizzolatti&rft.au=Vittorio+Gallese11&rft.au=Maria+Alessandra+Umilta&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Computer+Science%2CPsychology%2CNeuroscience">When it comes to robotics, Japan is way ahead of the rest of the world. Reality is quickly catching up with science-fiction as robots are being used and developed for increasingly complex behaviours. There are now Japanese robots that function as security guards, trainers for professional skills, and even pets and social companions.</span><br /><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=PLoS+ONE&rft_id=info%3A%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=Brain+Response+to+a+Humanoid+Robot+in+Areas+Implicated+in+the+Perception+of+Human+Emotional+Gestures&rft.issn=&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=&rft.issue=&rft.spage=&rft.epage=&rft.artnum=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.plosone.org%2Farticle%2Finfo%253Adoi%252F10.1371%252Fjournal.pone.0011577%3Bjsessionid%3D91B130711C2AD4C9804D1C8285A6DB39.ambra02&rft.au=Thierry+Chaminade1%2C2%2A%2C+Massimiliano+Zecca3%2C4%2C5%2C+Sarah-Jayne+Blakemore6%2C+Atsuo+Takanishi&rft.au=Chris+D.Frith1&rft.au=Silvestro+Micera&rft.au=Paolo+Dario&rft.au=Giacomo+Rizzolatti&rft.au=Vittorio+Gallese11&rft.au=Maria+Alessandra+Umilta&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Computer+Science%2CPsychology%2CNeuroscience"><br />Robots are taking over roles that were once thought to make humans unique. An archetypal example of this is the use of robots for <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17920443">cognitive therapy</a>. Robots are also being used for social assistance and personal care of the elderly. But how does robot social support fare against human support? Is it really possible to empathize with and emotionally respond to a robot while simultaneously knowing that it is just a robot?</span><br /><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=PLoS+ONE&rft_id=info%3A%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=Brain+Response+to+a+Humanoid+Robot+in+Areas+Implicated+in+the+Perception+of+Human+Emotional+Gestures&rft.issn=&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=&rft.issue=&rft.spage=&rft.epage=&rft.artnum=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.plosone.org%2Farticle%2Finfo%253Adoi%252F10.1371%252Fjournal.pone.0011577%3Bjsessionid%3D91B130711C2AD4C9804D1C8285A6DB39.ambra02&rft.au=Thierry+Chaminade1%2C2%2A%2C+Massimiliano+Zecca3%2C4%2C5%2C+Sarah-Jayne+Blakemore6%2C+Atsuo+Takanishi&rft.au=Chris+D.Frith1&rft.au=Silvestro+Micera&rft.au=Paolo+Dario&rft.au=Giacomo+Rizzolatti&rft.au=Vittorio+Gallese11&rft.au=Maria+Alessandra+Umilta&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Computer+Science%2CPsychology%2CNeuroscience"><br />Researchers from – you guessed it – Japan, recently collaborated with an international team to <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0011577;jsessionid=91B130711C2AD4C9804D1C8285A6DB39.ambra02">investigate</a> how our brains respond to robots expressing human emotions. A humanoid robot, called WE4-RII, was specially designed to make facial expressions for emotions such as disgust, anger and joy. Study participants had their brains scanned with fMRI as they watched either WE4-RII expressing emotions or a human expressing the same emotions. The subjects were asked to attend to either the way the robot/human face was moving or to the emotion being depicted.</span><br /><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=PLoS+ONE&rft_id=info%3A%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=Brain+Response+to+a+Humanoid+Robot+in+Areas+Implicated+in+the+Perception+of+Human+Emotional+Gestures&rft.issn=&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=&rft.issue=&rft.spage=&rft.epage=&rft.artnum=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.plosone.org%2Farticle%2Finfo%253Adoi%252F10.1371%252Fjournal.pone.0011577%3Bjsessionid%3D91B130711C2AD4C9804D1C8285A6DB39.ambra02&rft.au=Thierry+Chaminade1%2C2%2A%2C+Massimiliano+Zecca3%2C4%2C5%2C+Sarah-Jayne+Blakemore6%2C+Atsuo+Takanishi&rft.au=Chris+D.Frith1&rft.au=Silvestro+Micera&rft.au=Paolo+Dario&rft.au=Giacomo+Rizzolatti&rft.au=Vittorio+Gallese11&rft.au=Maria+Alessandra+Umilta&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Computer+Science%2CPsychology%2CNeuroscience"><br />When subjects attended to emotions, it was found that brain activity in areas involved in processing emotions (such as the left anterior insula for the perception of disgust) was reduced for robot compared to human stimuli. However, when participants attended to emotions rather than motions, it was also found that brain activity was increased in the ‘motor resonance’ (i.e., the <a href="http://neurokuz.blogspot.com/2010/04/mirror-neuron-conundrum-neuroblogging.html">controversial mirror neuron</a>) circuit.</span><br /><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=PLoS+ONE&rft_id=info%3A%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=Brain+Response+to+a+Humanoid+Robot+in+Areas+Implicated+in+the+Perception+of+Human+Emotional+Gestures&rft.issn=&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=&rft.issue=&rft.spage=&rft.epage=&rft.artnum=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.plosone.org%2Farticle%2Finfo%253Adoi%252F10.1371%252Fjournal.pone.0011577%3Bjsessionid%3D91B130711C2AD4C9804D1C8285A6DB39.ambra02&rft.au=Thierry+Chaminade1%2C2%2A%2C+Massimiliano+Zecca3%2C4%2C5%2C+Sarah-Jayne+Blakemore6%2C+Atsuo+Takanishi&rft.au=Chris+D.Frith1&rft.au=Silvestro+Micera&rft.au=Paolo+Dario&rft.au=Giacomo+Rizzolatti&rft.au=Vittorio+Gallese11&rft.au=Maria+Alessandra+Umilta&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Computer+Science%2CPsychology%2CNeuroscience"><br />The experimenters suggested this means we don’t emotionally resonate with robots as well as we do with humans, but we relate to robot facial motions better when we attend to their emotions.</span><br /><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=PLoS+ONE&rft_id=info%3A%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=Brain+Response+to+a+Humanoid+Robot+in+Areas+Implicated+in+the+Perception+of+Human+Emotional+Gestures&rft.issn=&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=&rft.issue=&rft.spage=&rft.epage=&rft.artnum=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.plosone.org%2Farticle%2Finfo%253Adoi%252F10.1371%252Fjournal.pone.0011577%3Bjsessionid%3D91B130711C2AD4C9804D1C8285A6DB39.ambra02&rft.au=Thierry+Chaminade1%2C2%2A%2C+Massimiliano+Zecca3%2C4%2C5%2C+Sarah-Jayne+Blakemore6%2C+Atsuo+Takanishi&rft.au=Chris+D.Frith1&rft.au=Silvestro+Micera&rft.au=Paolo+Dario&rft.au=Giacomo+Rizzolatti&rft.au=Vittorio+Gallese11&rft.au=Maria+Alessandra+Umilta&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Computer+Science%2CPsychology%2CNeuroscience"><br />The latter claim may seem counterintuitive, but it matches behavioural experiments that suggest a ‘motor interference effect’ for robotic movements. That is, when we attend to robotic movements, we don’t think of these movements as something that we do when we move, so we don’t resonate with them. But when we stop attending to the movements, we don’t notice the robotic nature of these movements anymore, and we therefore imitate them to a greater degree. I wonder if this would be much different for people who are really good at <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot_dance">dancing the robot</a>.</span><br /><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=PLoS+ONE&rft_id=info%3A%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=Brain+Response+to+a+Humanoid+Robot+in+Areas+Implicated+in+the+Perception+of+Human+Emotional+Gestures&rft.issn=&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=&rft.issue=&rft.spage=&rft.epage=&rft.artnum=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.plosone.org%2Farticle%2Finfo%253Adoi%252F10.1371%252Fjournal.pone.0011577%3Bjsessionid%3D91B130711C2AD4C9804D1C8285A6DB39.ambra02&rft.au=Thierry+Chaminade1%2C2%2A%2C+Massimiliano+Zecca3%2C4%2C5%2C+Sarah-Jayne+Blakemore6%2C+Atsuo+Takanishi&rft.au=Chris+D.Frith1&rft.au=Silvestro+Micera&rft.au=Paolo+Dario&rft.au=Giacomo+Rizzolatti&rft.au=Vittorio+Gallese11&rft.au=Maria+Alessandra+Umilta&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Computer+Science%2CPsychology%2CNeuroscience"><br />Still the experiment doesn’t demonstrate that we can’t emotionally relate to robots to the same degree as to humans. The robot used was clearly mechanical compared to the human actors. This means that subjects knew the robot was a robot. If you can’t tell whether a face is robot or human, however, it would be expected that the brain would respond in the same way.</span><br /><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=PLoS+ONE&rft_id=info%3A%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=Brain+Response+to+a+Humanoid+Robot+in+Areas+Implicated+in+the+Perception+of+Human+Emotional+Gestures&rft.issn=&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=&rft.issue=&rft.spage=&rft.epage=&rft.artnum=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.plosone.org%2Farticle%2Finfo%253Adoi%252F10.1371%252Fjournal.pone.0011577%3Bjsessionid%3D91B130711C2AD4C9804D1C8285A6DB39.ambra02&rft.au=Thierry+Chaminade1%2C2%2A%2C+Massimiliano+Zecca3%2C4%2C5%2C+Sarah-Jayne+Blakemore6%2C+Atsuo+Takanishi&rft.au=Chris+D.Frith1&rft.au=Silvestro+Micera&rft.au=Paolo+Dario&rft.au=Giacomo+Rizzolatti&rft.au=Vittorio+Gallese11&rft.au=Maria+Alessandra+Umilta&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Computer+Science%2CPsychology%2CNeuroscience"><br />An interesting follow-up study could address this problem by using more human-looking robots and including two groups of subjects: those who are aware of the robots and those who are not. Then we’d be able to see how previous knowledge affects our innate reactions to emotional facial expressions.</span><br /><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=PLoS+ONE&rft_id=info%3A%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=Brain+Response+to+a+Humanoid+Robot+in+Areas+Implicated+in+the+Perception+of+Human+Emotional+Gestures&rft.issn=&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=&rft.issue=&rft.spage=&rft.epage=&rft.artnum=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.plosone.org%2Farticle%2Finfo%253Adoi%252F10.1371%252Fjournal.pone.0011577%3Bjsessionid%3D91B130711C2AD4C9804D1C8285A6DB39.ambra02&rft.au=Thierry+Chaminade1%2C2%2A%2C+Massimiliano+Zecca3%2C4%2C5%2C+Sarah-Jayne+Blakemore6%2C+Atsuo+Takanishi&rft.au=Chris+D.Frith1&rft.au=Silvestro+Micera&rft.au=Paolo+Dario&rft.au=Giacomo+Rizzolatti&rft.au=Vittorio+Gallese11&rft.au=Maria+Alessandra+Umilta&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Computer+Science%2CPsychology%2CNeuroscience"><br />And another central question remains. Now that robots are taking over traditional human roles, when will we start scanning <i>their</i> ‘brains’ and investigating whether <i>they</i> can empathize with <i>us</i>? I won’t be visiting any hot-shot robot psychotherapist until we have data that shows they care.</span><br /><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=PLoS+ONE&rft_id=info%3A%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=Brain+Response+to+a+Humanoid+Robot+in+Areas+Implicated+in+the+Perception+of+Human+Emotional+Gestures&rft.issn=&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=&rft.issue=&rft.spage=&rft.epage=&rft.artnum=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.plosone.org%2Farticle%2Finfo%253Adoi%252F10.1371%252Fjournal.pone.0011577%3Bjsessionid%3D91B130711C2AD4C9804D1C8285A6DB39.ambra02&rft.au=Thierry+Chaminade1%2C2%2A%2C+Massimiliano+Zecca3%2C4%2C5%2C+Sarah-Jayne+Blakemore6%2C+Atsuo+Takanishi&rft.au=Chris+D.Frith1&rft.au=Silvestro+Micera&rft.au=Paolo+Dario&rft.au=Giacomo+Rizzolatti&rft.au=Vittorio+Gallese11&rft.au=Maria+Alessandra+Umilta&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Computer+Science%2CPsychology%2CNeuroscience"><br /></span><br /><a href="http://www.researchblogging.org/" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="ResearchBlogging.org" src="http://www.researchblogging.org/public/citation_icons/rb2_large_gray.png" style="border: 0pt none;" /></a><br /><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=PLoS+ONE&rft_id=info%3A%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=Brain+Response+to+a+Humanoid+Robot+in+Areas+Implicated+in+the+Perception+of+Human+Emotional+Gestures&rft.issn=&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=&rft.issue=&rft.spage=&rft.epage=&rft.artnum=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.plosone.org%2Farticle%2Finfo%253Adoi%252F10.1371%252Fjournal.pone.0011577%3Bjsessionid%3D91B130711C2AD4C9804D1C8285A6DB39.ambra02&rft.au=Thierry+Chaminade1%2C2%2A%2C+Massimiliano+Zecca3%2C4%2C5%2C+Sarah-Jayne+Blakemore6%2C+Atsuo+Takanishi&rft.au=Chris+D.Frith1&rft.au=Silvestro+Micera&rft.au=Paolo+Dario&rft.au=Giacomo+Rizzolatti&rft.au=Vittorio+Gallese11&rft.au=Maria+Alessandra+Umilta&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Computer+Science%2CPsychology%2CNeuroscience">Thierry Chaminade1,2*, Massimiliano Zecca3,4,5, Sarah-Jayne Blakemore6, Atsuo Takanishi, Chris D.Frith1, Silvestro Micera, Paolo Dario, Giacomo Rizzolatti, Vittorio Gallese11, & Maria Alessandra Umilta (2010). Brain Response to a Humanoid Robot in Areas Implicated in the Perception of Human Emotional Gestures <span style="font-style: italic;">PLoS ONE</span></span><br /><br /><span style="float: left; padding: 5px;"></span>NeuroKüzhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02219505720807067694noreply@blogger.com4tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8338654627878787277.post-11076753138249100772010-07-18T22:37:00.000-07:002010-07-19T07:29:43.709-07:00Inception<i>Inception</i> is the latest popular film in which a central theme is the questioning of reality. Similar to <i>the Matrix</i>, dreams are used as a window into this questioning.<br />
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“Inception” is defined in the film as the act of planting an idea into someone’s subconscious mind, which can be accomplished by entering their dream. Cobb (played by Leonardo DiCaprio), the main character in the film, is put on a mission to perform inception on an enemy. As an experienced thief who is able to enter the dreams of others, Cobb attempts to attain his goal using a complex scheme to avoid being caught by the enemy. Part of his strategy involves working with associates who design dreams, dreams within dreams, and dreams within dreams within dreams. At each layer, reality is brought into question.<br />
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Such questions are brought up: is the deepest level of dreaming actually reality? Is the first level that is not perceived as a dream actually a dream?<br />
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Characters in <i>Inception</i> struggle with these sorts of issues throughout the film. These sorts of issues are also reasons to be interested in and study neuroscience.<br />
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Although the concept of inception may be thought of in the film as a strategy for attack, perhaps there is another conception hidden beneath this layer of understanding, a conception that requires introspection at its core level. Inception, or the planting of an idea into the mind, could represent our basic notion of what is real. Perhaps we are born with the idea planted in our minds that reality is the world we are experiencing. Perhaps our brains develop in such a manner that we have a natural inclination to assume our senses do not deceive us.<br />
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When we start to question this form of inception, this trap of certainty, we are going against our instincts. We are no longer blindly accepting what we perceive.<br />
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Therein lies the beauty of neuroscience.<br />
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_xwcoDFM3XL0/TERhQIV275I/AAAAAAAAADU/qwk6ZRkNZ5k/s1600/Spinning-Top-Inception.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="149" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_xwcoDFM3XL0/TERhQIV275I/AAAAAAAAADU/qwk6ZRkNZ5k/s320/Spinning-Top-Inception.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>NeuroKüzhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02219505720807067694noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8338654627878787277.post-40665079979633908652010-07-08T17:12:00.000-07:002010-07-08T17:12:28.633-07:00The neural basis of synesthesiaWikipedia has a page on the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_basis_of_synesthesia">neural basis of synesthesia</a>, but not yet described there is a <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20547226">new study</a> in press by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vilayanur_S._Ramachandran">Vilayanur S. Ramachandran</a>’s group that provides interesting insights.<br />
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Synesthesia is a neurological condition in which affected individuals experience one sense (e.g. hearing) as another sense (e.g. visual colours). Ramachandran’s latest study investigated grapheme-colour synesthetes who experience specific colours when they view specific graphemes (i.e., letters and numbers). The results demonstrate that two brain areas – for grapheme and colour representation respectively – are activated at virtually the same time in the brains of synesthetes who are viewing letters and numbers. On the other hand, normal controls viewing the same thing exhibit activity in the grapheme region but not the colour region.<br />
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This is the first study of synesthesia to demonstrate simultaneous activation of the two brain areas, known as the posterior temporal grapheme area (PTGA) and colour area V4 (pictured below in the brain of a representative synesthete). The finding was made possible because the researchers used a neuroimaging technique called <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetoencephalography">magnetoencephalography</a> (MEG) to measure weak magnetic fields emitted by specific areas of the brain while the subjects viewed graphemes. Compared to other neuroimaging techniques, such as fMRI and EEG, MEG offers the best combination of temporal and spatial precision in measuring brain activation.<br />
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_xwcoDFM3XL0/TDZn26vRpvI/AAAAAAAAADQ/8f1_rmcCMk0/s1600/synesthesia+brain.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="179" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_xwcoDFM3XL0/TDZn26vRpvI/AAAAAAAAADQ/8f1_rmcCMk0/s320/synesthesia+brain.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>If you read the Wikipedia page, you know that there are two main theories that attempt to explain how synesthesia occurs in the brain: the <b>cross-activation theory</b> and the <b>disinhibited feedback theory</b>. Let’s call them <i>Theory 1</i> and <i>Theory 2</i> for simplicity. <i>Theory 1</i> posits that the grapheme and colour brain areas are ‘hyper-connected’ such that activity in the grapheme area evoked by viewing a letter or number immediately leads to activity in the colour area and conscious perception of colour. <i>Theory 2</i> maintains that there are ‘executive’ brain areas that control the communication between the grapheme and colour areas, and in synesthetes this control is disrupted. To reiterate, <i>Theory 1</i> says that normal brains are anatomically different than synesthete brains, whereas <i>Theory 2</i> says that normal brains are the same as synesthete brains but the two brains act differently.<br />
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The results of Ramachandran’s group support <i>Theory 1</i>, the cross-activation theory, since this model predicts that the colour and grapheme areas should be activated at roughly the same time in synesthetes looking at graphemes.<br />
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This is perhaps the strongest evidence for the cross-activation theory of synesthesia to date. But to complicate things, Ramachandran’s group proposed a new theory called ‘<b>cascaded cross-tuning model</b>,’ which is essentially a refinement of the cross-activation model (let’s call it <i>Theory 1.1</i>).<br />
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According to <i>Theory 1.1</i>, when a synesthete views a number, a series of simultaneous activations lead to perception of a colour. First, a subcomponent of the grapheme area responds to features of the number (e.g. the “o” that makes up the top of the number 9). This leads to activity in other subcomponents of the grapheme area representing possible numbers that the feature is part of (e.g. the “o” could be a component of the numbers 6, 8, or 9) as well as the colour area V4. At this point however, colour is not consciously perceived. Next, when the grapheme area identifies the number 6 (based on monitoring by other brain areas), activity in V4 is triggered, leading to conscious perception of the colour associated with the number 6.<br />
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Cool theory? Cool theory.<br />
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Note, however, that it only applies to ‘projector’ synesthetes who see colours in the outside world when they see numbers, but not ‘associator’ synesthetes who perceive the colours in the “mind’s eye.” Also, it doesn’t yet apply to other forms of synesthesia, such as acquired synesthesias (e.g. <a href="http://neurokuz.blogspot.com/2010/04/synesthesia-of-empathy-for-pain.html">synesthesia for pain</a>).<br />
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Yeah, it’s only a matter of time before <i>Theory 1.2</i> takes over.<br />
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<b>Reference:</b> <br />
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<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=NeuroImage&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20547226&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=Magnetoencephalography+reveals+early+activation+of+V4+in+grapheme-color+synesthesia.&rft.issn=1053-8119&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=&rft.issue=&rft.spage=&rft.epage=&rft.artnum=&rft.au=Brang+D&rft.au=Hubbard+EM&rft.au=Coulson+S&rft.au=Huang+M&rft.au=Ramachandran+VS&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Psychology%2CNeuroscience">Brang D, Hubbard EM, Coulson S, Huang M, & Ramachandran VS (2010). Magnetoencephalography reveals early activation of V4 in grapheme-color synesthesia. <span style="font-style: italic;">NeuroImage</span> PMID: <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20547226" rev="review">20547226</a></span>NeuroKüzhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02219505720807067694noreply@blogger.com5tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8338654627878787277.post-2743298711675606742010-07-05T15:47:00.000-07:002010-07-07T09:45:41.028-07:00Coming soon: your brain on shrooms<span style="float: left; padding: 5px;"><a href="http://researchblogging.org/news/?p=1543"><img alt="This post was chosen as an Editor's Selection for ResearchBlogging.org" src="http://www.researchblogging.org/public/citation_icons/rb_editors-selection.png" style="border: 0pt none;" /></a></span><br />
For the first time, people under the influence of psilocybin, the psychoactive ingredient in magic mushrooms, laid down in what appeared to be an fMRI brain scanner.<br />
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However, unlike an fMRI machine, the device didn’t generate any magnetic fields. In fact the device didn’t even generate an image of the brain or measure brain activity at all. The device was made out of wood.<br />
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In a study on the safety of administering psilocybin intravenously and conducting an fMRI scan, nine subjects who had previous experience with hallucinogenic drugs were injected with 2 milligrams of psilocybin and were then asked to lie down in the wooden mock-fMRI setting. The researchers determined that this dose of psilocybin should be considered tolerable and safe for conducting a brain scan.<br />
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It was important that this study be conducted before any real fMRI study on psilocybin because psychedelic drug experiences tend to be sensitive to the surrounding environment of the treated individual. Furthermore, it is difficult get good data out of fMRI. The subject has to keep their head as still as possible for the duration of the scan, since slight movements can ruin the quality of the acquired data. The subjects in the mock-fMRI scanner were able to keep very still despite reporting that they were strongly affected by the drug.<br />
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Research on psilocybin has been gaining a respectable reputation in scientific and medical communities, as outlined in a <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/12/science/12psychedelics.html?_r=1&src=me&ref=homepage%E2%80%9D">New York Times article</a> that I <a href="http://neurokuz.blogspot.com/2010/04/psilocybin-for-depression-are-shrooms.html">previously reviewed</a>. Guidelines for <a href="http://csp.org/psilocybin/HopkinsHallucinogenSafety2008.pdf">safety in human hallucinogen research</a> already exist, and the findings from this pilot study on mock-fMRI will build upon these guidelines. With fMRI studies, the reputation of psilocybin in research will likely improve, as will our understanding of how the drug exerts its baffling effects. There are currently two <a href="http://www.clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00465595">ongoing</a> <a href="http://www.bpru.org/cancer/">studies</a> investigating whether psilocybin can ease psychological suffering associated with cancer. If there is an effect on mental well-being, studies of the brain could help us uncover the mechanism. And of course, news agencies will likely jump on the opportunity to describe the mystical experiences associated with psilocybin use as a simple product of neural patterns.<br />
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As in all aspects of neuroscience, however, fMRI will not tell us the whole story. The cellular and molecular level of psilocybin’s effects should be considered in conjunction with information obtained from macro-level brain activity studies.<br />
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It is also important to realize that just because psilocybin is being taken seriously in research, this does not justify irresponsible use of the drug. Whenever a research study identifies a positive effect of cannabis or another illicit substance, proponents of using that drug often take the findings out of proportion and context. Learning how psilocybin works may help us understand how to best use it, but harmful effects as well as the limitations of research studies should always be considered.<br />
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Expect to hear a lot more about psilocybin brain scans in the near future.<br />
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[Edit: see <a href="http://www.mindhacks.com/blog/2010/07/tripping_into_an_art.html">Mind Hacks</a> for more discussion of the study]<br />
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<span style="font-weight: bold;">Reference:</span><br />
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<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+psychopharmacology+%28Oxford%2C+England%29&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20395317&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=The+administration+of+psilocybin+to+healthy%2C+hallucinogen-experienced+volunteers+in+a+mock-functional+magnetic+resonance+imaging+environment%3A+a+preliminary+investigation+of+tolerability.&rft.issn=0269-8811&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=&rft.issue=&rft.spage=&rft.epage=&rft.artnum=&rft.au=Carhart-Harris+RL&rft.au=Williams+TM&rft.au=Sessa+B&rft.au=Tyacke+RJ&rft.au=Rich+AS&rft.au=Feilding+A&rft.au=Nutt+DJ&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Psychology%2CNeuroscience">Carhart-Harris RL, Williams TM, Sessa B, Tyacke RJ, Rich AS, Feilding A, & Nutt DJ (2010). The administration of psilocybin to healthy, hallucinogen-experienced volunteers in a mock-functional magnetic resonance imaging environment: a preliminary investigation of tolerability. <span style="font-style: italic;">Journal of psychopharmacology (Oxford, England)</span> PMID: <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20395317" rev="review">20395317</a></span>NeuroKüzhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02219505720807067694noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8338654627878787277.post-25906031717631034012010-06-29T20:35:00.000-07:002010-06-29T21:04:54.665-07:00Are we conscious or unconscious consumers?What if I put you in a brain scanner for a few minutes and told you to stare at a black square, then I looked at your neural activity, and then I told you: “You might as well stop fighting those hidden urges. Go out and splurge on that 77’ Pinto station wagon you’ve wanted all these years.”<br />
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_xwcoDFM3XL0/TCq7EKShIVI/AAAAAAAAADM/Ypx_xgB2VUk/s1600/pinto.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="169" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_xwcoDFM3XL0/TCq7EKShIVI/AAAAAAAAADM/Ypx_xgB2VUk/s320/pinto.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><br />
Would you glare at me as if I were some kind of mad scientist turned psychic-wannabe? Or would you nod in embarrassment because you read about a <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/pubmed/20534850">study</a> that was recently published in the <i>Journal of Neuroscience</i> showing that your neural responses to unattended products determine what you want to buy?<br />
<br />
In the study, John-Dylan Haynes and colleagues examined brain regions that were activated with fMRI in two groups of male subjects who participated in different visual tasks. In the first group, 17 participants had their brains scanned as they viewed images of cars while actively evaluating and rating each car’s attractiveness. In the second group, 15 participants were scanned as they engaged in a visual fixation task while images of cars popped up on the screen outside their focus of attention. After scanning, the subjects were asked whether they were willing to purchase each car that was shown to them. The researchers found that decisions about purchasing could be predicted by brain activity equally well in both groups of subjects.<br />
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The results suggest that our brains may unconsciously evaluate products when we’re not attending to them. This is quite interesting as the study provides insights to consciousness and decision-making. Proponents of neuromarketing have been circulating and praising this study because they suggest it brings us closer to using fMRI to study advertising and marketing strategies (a topic I <a href="http://neurokuz.blogspot.com/2010/03/neuromarketing-subliminal-advertising.html">previously wrote about</a>).<br />
<br />
However, the study doesn’t necessarily show that our decisions are influenced by unattended, subliminal stimuli. Instead it might show that we re-evaluate unconscious images that are images we have already consciously evaluated. In fact, the subjects in the study reported that before the experiment they were familiar with 85-87% of the cars they were shown. We can’t conclude, then, that flashing products as in subliminal advertising affects our buying choices.<br />
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So how does this study help neuromarketing? <a href="http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn19024-unconscious-purchasing-urges-revealed-by-brain-scans.html">New Scientist</a> reports that Haynes says this kind of approach might be particularly useful for inferring people's opinions of products they would be reluctant to admit to buying (although he emphasises that he is unwilling to promote neuromarketing for this purpose).<br />
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It still remains to be seen, however, whether fMRI can reveal hidden information that cannot be determined from conventional marketing surveys. Perhaps Haynes’ study contributes more to our understanding of consciousness and decision-making than it does to our understanding of selling products.<br />
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<span style="float: left; padding: 5px;"><a href="http://www.researchblogging.org/"><img alt="ResearchBlogging.org" src="http://www.researchblogging.org/public/citation_icons/rb2_large_gray.png" style="border: 0pt none;" /></a></span><br />
<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+neuroscience+%3A+the+official+journal+of+the+Society+for+Neuroscience&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20534850&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=Neural+responses+to+unattended+products+predict+later+consumer+choices.&rft.issn=0270-6474&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=23&rft.spage=8024&rft.epage=31&rft.artnum=&rft.au=Tusche+A&rft.au=Bode+S&rft.au=Haynes+JD&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Psychology%2CNeuroscience">Tusche A, Bode S, & Haynes JD (2010). Neural responses to unattended products predict later consumer choices. <span style="font-style: italic;">The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience, 30</span> (23), 8024-31 PMID: <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20534850" rev="review">20534850</a></span>NeuroKüzhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02219505720807067694noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8338654627878787277.post-78835078054070806512010-06-20T20:14:00.000-07:002010-06-20T21:02:18.211-07:00Do video games enhance cognitive abilities?<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=Attention%2C+perception+%26+psychophysics&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20436205&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=Video+game+players+show+more+precise+multisensory+temporal+processing+abilities.&rft.issn=1943-3921&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=72&rft.issue=4&rft.spage=1120&rft.epage=9&rft.artnum=&rft.au=Donohue+SE&rft.au=Woldorff+MG&rft.au=Mitroff+SR&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Psychology%2CNeuroscience">In my <a href="http://neurokuz.blogspot.com/2010/06/internet-good-or-bad-for-brain.html">last post</a>, I discussed a debate that is going on over whether using the internet is good or bad for the brain. Those who argue against apparently harmful effects of the internet often cite studies that suggest playing video games actually enhances certain cognitive abilities. How compelling is the evidence for these purported benefits?</span><br />
<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=Attention%2C+perception+%26+psychophysics&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20436205&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=Video+game+players+show+more+precise+multisensory+temporal+processing+abilities.&rft.issn=1943-3921&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=72&rft.issue=4&rft.spage=1120&rft.epage=9&rft.artnum=&rft.au=Donohue+SE&rft.au=Woldorff+MG&rft.au=Mitroff+SR&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Psychology%2CNeuroscience"><br />
Well if you search the research literature, you will find a large number of studies (some in very high-impact journals) suggesting that regular video game players indeed have demonstrated a number of cognitive benefits relative to non-video game players. These include improved eye-hand coordination, visual attention, spatial abilities, visual acuity, and ability to simultaneously track multiple moving visual items. Moreover, some studies suggest that when non-video game players are trained with action video games for a relatively short period of time, they show a gain in some of the aforementioned cognitive functions. </span><br />
<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=Attention%2C+perception+%26+psychophysics&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20436205&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=Video+game+players+show+more+precise+multisensory+temporal+processing+abilities.&rft.issn=1943-3921&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=72&rft.issue=4&rft.spage=1120&rft.epage=9&rft.artnum=&rft.au=Donohue+SE&rft.au=Woldorff+MG&rft.au=Mitroff+SR&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Psychology%2CNeuroscience"><br />
Let’s take a look at a <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20436205">recent study</a> that examined the possibility of yet another cognitive benefit for video game players. Sarah Donohue and colleagues at Duke University assessed whether gamers demonstrate enhanced ‘multisensory processing abilities,’ which can be explained as abilities to properly integrate information from more than one sense. For example, if you’ve ever watched a badly dubbed movie in which the sound is misaligned with the video, you’ve experienced a conflict between vision and audition. What Donohue and the researchers essentially asked is: are action video game players better at identifying these sorts of multisensory conflicts than non-video game players?</span><br />
<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=Attention%2C+perception+%26+psychophysics&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20436205&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=Video+game+players+show+more+precise+multisensory+temporal+processing+abilities.&rft.issn=1943-3921&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=72&rft.issue=4&rft.spage=1120&rft.epage=9&rft.artnum=&rft.au=Donohue+SE&rft.au=Woldorff+MG&rft.au=Mitroff+SR&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Psychology%2CNeuroscience"><br />
The subjects in this study were all male, as the researchers had a difficult time finding females with extensive gaming experience. 18 young adults who regularly play video games such as first-person shooters, real-time strategy and sports games were compared to 18 individuals who don’t play video games at all on a test of visual-auditory multisensory processing abilities. By presenting visual and auditory stimuli either in synchrony or offset in time on a computer screen and speakers, it was found that gamers were better at identifying when sounds and pictures were presented in synchrony or asynchrony. Subjects who played the most video games scored the best on these tests.</span><br />
<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=Attention%2C+perception+%26+psychophysics&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20436205&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=Video+game+players+show+more+precise+multisensory+temporal+processing+abilities.&rft.issn=1943-3921&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=72&rft.issue=4&rft.spage=1120&rft.epage=9&rft.artnum=&rft.au=Donohue+SE&rft.au=Woldorff+MG&rft.au=Mitroff+SR&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Psychology%2CNeuroscience"><br />
The findings make sense, as in video games such as first-person shooters, players integrate auditory cues with visual cues to make sure they don’t get shot when they turn a corner. I would guess that gamers who play with high-quality sound and graphic systems would enjoy exaggerated benefits of these kinds.</span><br />
<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=Attention%2C+perception+%26+psychophysics&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20436205&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=Video+game+players+show+more+precise+multisensory+temporal+processing+abilities.&rft.issn=1943-3921&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=72&rft.issue=4&rft.spage=1120&rft.epage=9&rft.artnum=&rft.au=Donohue+SE&rft.au=Woldorff+MG&rft.au=Mitroff+SR&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Psychology%2CNeuroscience"><br />
This study has added to the growing body of literature on positive cognitive effects of video games. So perhaps technology is not <i>all bad</i> for the brain. This is not to suggest that video games are purely good for you, and the more you play the better off you are in life. But we at least have evidence that all those hours of game time are not necessarily a complete waste. Now if only people started doing similar studies on avid internet users versus non-internet users (there are some studies on this, but they are notoriously few in quantity)...<br />
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As for video games, the take-home message is clear: we should all be spending more money on better televisions, graphic cards, video game systems, and sound systems, and we should be encouraging girls to join in and reap the cognitive benefits. </span><br />
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<a href="http://www.researchblogging.org/" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="ResearchBlogging.org" src="http://www.researchblogging.org/public/citation_icons/rb2_large_gray.png" style="border: 0pt none;" /></a><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=Attention%2C+perception+%26+psychophysics&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20436205&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=Video+game+players+show+more+precise+multisensory+temporal+processing+abilities.&rft.issn=1943-3921&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=72&rft.issue=4&rft.spage=1120&rft.epage=9&rft.artnum=&rft.au=Donohue+SE&rft.au=Woldorff+MG&rft.au=Mitroff+SR&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Psychology%2CNeuroscience">Donohue SE, Woldorff MG, & Mitroff SR (2010). Video game players show more precise multisensory temporal processing abilities. <span style="font-style: italic;">Attention, perception & psychophysics, 72</span> (4), 1120-9 PMID: <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20436205" rev="review">20436205</a></span>NeuroKüzhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02219505720807067694noreply@blogger.com8tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8338654627878787277.post-15690703044522280012010-06-13T17:16:00.000-07:002010-06-13T20:30:29.046-07:00The internet: good or bad for the brain?There has been a lot of talk in recent weeks about the effects of technology on the brain. The New York Times has published a series of articles called “<a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/07/technology/07brain.html?pagewanted=1">Your Brain on Computers</a>,” which features interviews with neuroscientists as well as stories of people who are so “addicted” to the internet that it’s adversely affecting their family life and parenting habits. Furthermore, Nicholas Carr’s new book <i>The Shallows: What the Internet is Doing to Our Brains</i> was just released, and its ideas have sparked some interesting debates.<br />
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While some agree with Carr’s thesis that information overload and multitasking habits encouraged by internet use are bad for the brain, others contend that we are actually smarter as individuals because of the internet. Arguments against Carr have come from prominent thinkers <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/11/opinion/11Pinker.html?ref=opinion">Steven Pinker</a> and <a href="http://scienceblogs.com/cortex/2010/06/the_shallows.php">Jonah Lehrer</a>; Carr’s responses to some of their arguments can be found <a href="http://www.roughtype.com/archives/2010/06/steven_pinker_a.php">here</a>.<br />
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I won’t summarize the arguments of either side of the debate, but I will make the following conclusions after reading through the material:<br />
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There are probably both positive and negative effects of internet use on the brain. To claim that using the internet is purely good or purely bad for you is to ignore the complexity of the issue, to ignore the complexity of the brain. Whether the internet is helpful or harmful depends on how you’re using it and what you’re using it for. We should be wary of the media when we read about “internet addiction” as if it shares features with drug addiction. Likewise, we should put on our skeptic goggles when we hear that internet use improves particular cognitive abilities that haven’t yet been demonstrated to have any practical value.<br />
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Using the internet indeed rewires your brain, but there are both good and bad ways that your brain can rewired. We’re not yet at a point where we can definitely say what aspects of internet use are good or bad (at least for most aspects). This is evidenced by the fact that well-informed, intellectual thinkers have made different conclusions from the same data about the effects of internet on the brain. Clear consensuses among scientists, such as the agreement on evolutionary theory, tend to arise from clear incontrovertible bodies of evidence. The effects of internet on the brain simply have not yet been studied in such depth (hence the existence of ‘evolutionary biologists’ but not ‘cognitive internet neuroscientists’).<br />
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Given such widespread use of technology that promises to make us more productive and efficient, parsing out which aspects of internet use are positive and negative is an important endeavour. But we mustn’t lose sight of the core issues surrounding technology overuse that are already known to be harmful to the brain. For example, there appears to be no talk within the internet-brain debate about a culture of physical inactivity that is encouraged and promoted by technology. We know that physical exercise has beneficial effects on cognitive function, which is linked to changes in brain structure and function. If this debate is about how internet use and technological reliance affects the brain, we can’t ignore the harmful effects of physical inactivity that accompany internet use. <br />
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The debate has focused so much on what your brain is doing while you focus your attention from place to place on your monitor or handheld screen, but there seems to be no talk about what your body is physically doing as you browse the internet. Physical actions (or lack thereof) cannot be thought of as separate from mental processing. A discussion of physical activity and the brain should be therefore integrated into the debate if it is to be comprehensive in addressing factors that affect our brains as we surf the web and tweet.<br />
<br />
Of all the behavioural changes from our hunter-gatherer history that have been caused by internet and technology use, our reduced level of physical activity is perhaps the most significant – and this may be exerting the most significant effect on our brains.NeuroKüzhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02219505720807067694noreply@blogger.com5tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8338654627878787277.post-5714617641142495332010-06-10T14:47:00.000-07:002010-10-24T13:33:36.251-07:00The plastic brains of birds<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London.+Series+B%2C+Biological+sciences&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20156817&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=Seasonal+hippocampal+plasticity+in+food-storing+birds.&rft.issn=0962-8436&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=365&rft.issue=1542&rft.spage=933&rft.epage=43&rft.artnum=&rft.au=Sherry+DF&rft.au=Hoshooley+JS&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Biology%2CNeuroscience">The</span><span style="float: left; padding: 5px;"><a href="http://researchblogging.org/news/?p=1461"><img alt="This post was chosen as an Editor's Selection for ResearchBlogging.org" src="http://www.researchblogging.org/public/citation_icons/rb_editors-selection.png" style="border: 0pt none;" /></a></span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London.+Series+B%2C+Biological+sciences&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20156817&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=Seasonal+hippocampal+plasticity+in+food-storing+birds.&rft.issn=0962-8436&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=365&rft.issue=1542&rft.spage=933&rft.epage=43&rft.artnum=&rft.au=Sherry+DF&rft.au=Hoshooley+JS&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Biology%2CNeuroscience">re has been a lot of talk about brain plasticity, the idea that our brains</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London.+Series+B%2C+Biological+sciences&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20156817&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=Seasonal+hippocampal+plasticity+in+food-storing+birds.&rft.issn=0962-8436&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=365&rft.issue=1542&rft.spage=933&rft.epage=43&rft.artnum=&rft.au=Sherry+DF&rft.au=Hoshooley+JS&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Biology%2CNeuroscience"> can be shaped and mo</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London.+Series+B%2C+Biological+sciences&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20156817&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=Seasonal+hippocampal+plasticity+in+food-storing+birds.&rft.issn=0962-8436&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=365&rft.issue=1542&rft.spage=933&rft.epage=43&rft.artnum=&rft.au=Sherry+DF&rft.au=Hoshooley+JS&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Biology%2CNeuroscience">ul</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London.+Series+B%2C+Biological+sciences&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20156817&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=Seasonal+hippocampal+plasticity+in+food-storing+birds.&rft.issn=0962-8436&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=365&rft.issue=1542&rft.spage=933&rft.epage=43&rft.artnum=&rft.au=Sherry+DF&rft.au=Hoshooley+JS&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Biology%2CNeuroscience">ded by experience, in popular books and articles over the past several years. The notion that </span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London.+Series+B%2C+Biological+sciences&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20156817&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=Seasonal+hippocampal+plasticity+in+food-storing+birds.&rft.issn=0962-8436&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=365&rft.issue=1542&rft.spage=933&rft.epage=43&rft.artnum=&rft.au=Sherry+DF&rft.au=Hoshooley+JS&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Biology%2CNeuroscience">new neurons can be born in our b</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London.+Series+B%2C+Biological+sciences&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20156817&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=Seasonal+hippocampal+plasticity+in+food-storing+birds.&rft.issn=0962-8436&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=365&rft.issue=1542&rft.spage=933&rft.epage=43&rft.artnum=&rft.au=Sherry+DF&rft.au=Hoshooley+JS&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Biology%2CNeuroscience">rains, even in adulthood, is gripping and at ti</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London.+Series+B%2C+Biological+sciences&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20156817&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=Seasonal+hippocampal+plasticity+in+food-storing+birds.&rft.issn=0962-8436&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=365&rft.issue=1542&rft.spage=933&rft.epage=43&rft.artnum=&rft.au=Sherry+DF&rft.au=Hoshooley+JS&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Biology%2CNeuroscience">mes very encouraging.</span><br /><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London.+Series+B%2C+Biological+sciences&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20156817&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=Seasonal+hippocampal+plasticity+in+food-storing+birds.&rft.issn=0962-8436&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=365&rft.issue=1542&rft.spage=933&rft.epage=43&rft.artnum=&rft.au=Sherry+DF&rft.au=Hoshooley+JS&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Biology%2CNeuroscience"><br />However, our brains are not nearly as plastic as the more primitive brains</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London.+Series+B%2C+Biological+sciences&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20156817&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=Seasonal+hippocampal+plasticity+in+food-storing+birds.&rft.issn=0962-8436&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=365&rft.issue=1542&rft.spage=933&rft.epage=43&rft.artnum=&rft.au=Sherry+DF&rft.au=Hoshooley+JS&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Biology%2CNeuroscience"> of fish</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London.+Series+B%2C+Biological+sciences&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20156817&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=Seasonal+hippocampal+plasticity+in+food-storing+birds.&rft.issn=0962-8436&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=365&rft.issue=1542&rft.spage=933&rft.epage=43&rft.artnum=&rft.au=Sherry+DF&rft.au=Hoshooley+JS&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Biology%2CNeuroscience">, amphibians and birds. Some of these organisms experience fluctuations in brain volume so drastic that if they existed in humans, they would probably lead to startling changes in intelligence and behaviour throughout adult life.</span><br /><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London.+Series+B%2C+Biological+sciences&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20156817&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=Seasonal+hippocampal+plasticity+in+food-storing+birds.&rft.issn=0962-8436&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=365&rft.issue=1542&rft.spage=933&rft.epage=43&rft.artnum=&rft.au=Sherry+DF&rft.au=Hoshooley+JS&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Biology%2CNeuroscience"><br />In birds, changes in singing behaviour that occur as the seasons change are linked to radical changes in the size of brain regions that control singing (explained <a href="http://neurokuz.blogspot.com/2010/06/neuroscience-of-birdsong.html">here</a>). During mating season, when birds sing more, new neurons are born (i.e. neurogenesis) in the song control system, whereas neurons die during the offseason.<br /><br />Neurogenesis occurs in widespread regions of adult bird brains, making them a good model for studying the mechanism of neuron birth. In mammals, neurogenesis has only been identified in the hippocampus and the olfactory bulb. In humans, most research attention is given to the hippocampus because of its prominent roles in memory and cognition.</span><br /><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London.+Series+B%2C+Biological+sciences&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20156817&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=Seasonal+hippocampal+plasticity+in+food-storing+birds.&rft.issn=0962-8436&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=365&rft.issue=1542&rft.spage=933&rft.epage=43&rft.artnum=&rft.au=Sherry+DF&rft.au=Hoshooley+JS&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Biology%2CNeuroscience"><br />David Sherry and Jennifer Hoshooley at the University of Western Ontario recently published a review on the study of plasticity/neurogenesis in the hippocampus of birds who store food during specific seasons. The authors discuss studies that show changes in hippocampal size and neurogenesis during periods of food-storing behaviour. They propose that hippocampal neurogenesis may be a consequence of the behavioural and cognitive involvement of the hippocampus in storing and retrieving food.</span><br /><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London.+Series+B%2C+Biological+sciences&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20156817&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=Seasonal+hippocampal+plasticity+in+food-storing+birds.&rft.issn=0962-8436&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=365&rft.issue=1542&rft.spage=933&rft.epage=43&rft.artnum=&rft.au=Sherry+DF&rft.au=Hoshooley+JS&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Biology%2CNeuroscience"><br />It is important to note, however, that it is difficult to directly link hippocampal neurogenesis to food-storing behaviour when this type of behaviour always comes during a specific season that is associated with changes in social system, size and appearance of home range, and diet. Important evidence that supports the notion that hippocampal neurogenesis is due to food-storing behaviour alone comes from studies of food-storing birds (e.g. chickadees) versus non-storing birds (e.g. house sparrows). The non-storing birds experience the same environmental changes as food-storing birds, but the food-storing birds show much more hippocampal neurogenesis than the non-storing birds (a study that showed this was conducted by David Sherry’s group).</span><br /><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London.+Series+B%2C+Biological+sciences&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20156817&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=Seasonal+hippocampal+plasticity+in+food-storing+birds.&rft.issn=0962-8436&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=365&rft.issue=1542&rft.spage=933&rft.epage=43&rft.artnum=&rft.au=Sherry+DF&rft.au=Hoshooley+JS&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Biology%2CNeuroscience"><br />It thus appears that hippocampal plasticity is linked to food-storing behaviour, an activity that involves memorizing multiple locations at once – something that birds are very good at. What remains to be seen is the aspect(s) of food-storing behaviour that the hippocampus is important for. We know that a reliable way to stimulate hippocampal neurogenesis in mammals is getting them to exercise. Could it be that birds are much more physically active during food-storing season, and could this account for the birth of new neurons? Neurogenesis is extensively studied in birds, but the question of exercise and neurogenesis has not been directly investigated. </span><br /><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London.+Series+B%2C+Biological+sciences&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20156817&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=Seasonal+hippocampal+plasticity+in+food-storing+birds.&rft.issn=0962-8436&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=365&rft.issue=1542&rft.spage=933&rft.epage=43&rft.artnum=&rft.au=Sherry+DF&rft.au=Hoshooley+JS&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Biology%2CNeuroscience"><br />We know that we share genes with birds that control language and singing; perhaps further study of plasticity and neurogenesis will illuminate more similarities between us and our flying friends.</span><br /><br /><b>References:</b><br /><br /><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London.+Series+B%2C+Biological+sciences&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20156817&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=Seasonal+hippocampal+plasticity+in+food-storing+birds.&rft.issn=0962-8436&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=365&rft.issue=1542&rft.spage=933&rft.epage=43&rft.artnum=&rft.au=Sherry+DF&rft.au=Hoshooley+JS&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Biology%2CNeuroscience">Sherry DF, & Hoshooley JS (2010). Seasonal hippocampal plasticity in food-storing birds. <span style="font-style: italic;">Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences, 365</span> (1542), 933-43 PMID: <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20156817" rev="review">20156817</a></span><br /><br /><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=Developmental+neurobiology&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17443797&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=Greater+hippocampal+neuronal+recruitment+in+food-storing+than+in+non-food-storing+birds.&rft.issn=1932-8451&rft.date=2007&rft.volume=67&rft.issue=4&rft.spage=406&rft.epage=14&rft.artnum=&rft.au=Hoshooley+JS&rft.au=Sherry+DF&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Biology%2CNeuroscience">Hoshooley JS, & Sherry DF (2007). Greater hippocampal neuronal recruitment in food-storing than in non-food-storing birds. <span style="font-style: italic;">Developmental neurobiology, 67</span> (4), 406-14 PMID: <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17443797" rev="review">17443797</a></span>NeuroKüzhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02219505720807067694noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8338654627878787277.post-89687471162212244362010-06-08T20:34:00.000-07:002010-06-08T20:34:30.596-07:00The neuroscience of birdsongI’ve decided to write a couple of articles on a relatively underappreciated area of neuroscience: the study of birds. I hope to demonstrate that although the term “bird brain” is used as an insult in everyday bicker, the tiny brains of birds are more complex than they are perceived to be. Bird brains may even be able to teach us a thing or two about the brightest of human brains. In this first post, I will describe birdsong – a rare example of music production in nonhumans.<br />
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You’ve probably woken up to the high pitch of singing birds before. If you pay close attention and analyze birdsongs, you’ll find that birds are capable of producing quite complex vocal patterns. Some bird species are able to produce over 1000 song syllables! However, the most commonly studied bird in the context of birdsong is the zebra finch, because this bird is simple: it sings just one song type. Male zebra finches sing to attract female mates, whereas female zebra finches don’t sing. The brain circuitry for song control in zebra finches is well characterized.<br />
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_xwcoDFM3XL0/TA8LP0QQLeI/AAAAAAAAADI/MjJe9T2088M/s1600/birdsong.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="245" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_xwcoDFM3XL0/TA8LP0QQLeI/AAAAAAAAADI/MjJe9T2088M/s320/birdsong.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>The most studied region in the schematic above is HVC, at the top of the bird brain. A bird with a damaged HVC cannot sing, and studies on the functional role of HVC have confirmed that it is a critical area for song production/control. In zebra finches, the HVC is much larger in males who sing than in females who don’t sing. <br />
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When male zebra finches sense the presence of a female, neural signals converge at HVC, causing the male to sing. The green pathway from HVC to RA ends at the syrinx, a vocal organ situated at the top of the trachea. The green pathway must be intact for birds to properly control muscles that modulate complex sounds being produced. The other main pathway is the red one that goes from HVC to Area X. The red pathway is involved in learning songs from “tutor” birds and receiving self-feedback while singing (so birds can correct themselves when they make mistakes).<br />
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An interesting area of study is the comparison of birdsong to human language. The hypothesis that the two are analogous is rejected by critics who maintain that birdsong is a single memorized set of vocalizations, whereas language involves a set of rules that can be combined in infinite unique ways. Nevertheless, birdsong and language parallel one another in important ways. When they are learning how to sing, birds display vocalizations that are similar to human infant babbling. Furthermore, the gene FoxP2 that is involved in neural control of vocal development is active in human and zebra finch brains in strikingly similar ways. This gene is also found in other animals such as mice, but it is best to study the gene in birds because their vocal behaviours are closest to ours.<br />
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So in summary, we now know a lot about the neural substrates of birdsong, and bird vocalizations can be looked at as both a behavioural and biological model of human language development and/or dysfunction. This post was intended to be a quick summary of what’s most interesting about the study of birdsong, so keep in mind that I’ve only scratched the surface of the topic. Perhaps the next step will be determining how birds can dance...<br />
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<b>References:</b><br />
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<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+neurobiology&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9369455&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=An+introduction+to+birdsong+and+the+avian+song+system.&rft.issn=0022-3034&rft.date=1997&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=5&rft.spage=495&rft.epage=500&rft.artnum=&rft.au=Brenowitz+EA&rft.au=Margoliash+D&rft.au=Nordeen+KW&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Biology%2CNeuroscience">Brenowitz EA, Margoliash D, & Nordeen KW (1997). An introduction to birdsong and the avian song system. <span style="font-style: italic;">Journal of neurobiology, 33</span> (5), 495-500 PMID: <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9369455" rev="review">9369455</a></span><br />
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<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=Trends+in+neurosciences&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15749165&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=Song+learning+in+birds%3A+diversity+and+plasticity%2C+opportunities+and+challenges.&rft.issn=0166-2236&rft.date=2005&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=3&rft.spage=127&rft.epage=32&rft.artnum=&rft.au=Brenowitz+EA&rft.au=Beecher+MD&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Biology%2CNeuroscience">Brenowitz EA, & Beecher MD (2005). Song learning in birds: diversity and plasticity, opportunities and challenges. <span style="font-style: italic;">Trends in neurosciences, 28</span> (3), 127-32 PMID: <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15749165" rev="review">15749165</a></span><br />
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<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=Trends+in+neurosciences&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10481186&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=Comparative+studies+of+sex+differences+in+the+song-control+system+of+songbirds.&rft.issn=0166-2236&rft.date=1999&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=10&rft.spage=432&rft.epage=6&rft.artnum=&rft.au=MacDougall-Shackleton+SA&rft.au=Ball+GF&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Biology%2CNeuroscience">MacDougall-Shackleton SA, & Ball GF (1999). Comparative studies of sex differences in the song-control system of songbirds. <span style="font-style: italic;">Trends in neurosciences, 22</span> (10), 432-6 PMID: <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10481186" rev="review">10481186</a></span><br />
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<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+neuroscience+%3A+the+official+journal+of+the+Society+for+Neuroscience&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15056695&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=Parallel+FoxP1+and+FoxP2+expression+in+songbird+and+human+brain+predicts+functional+interaction.&rft.issn=0270-6474&rft.date=2004&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=13&rft.spage=3152&rft.epage=63&rft.artnum=&rft.au=Teramitsu+I&rft.au=Kudo+LC&rft.au=London+SE&rft.au=Geschwind+DH&rft.au=White+SA&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Biology%2CNeuroscience">Teramitsu I, Kudo LC, London SE, Geschwind DH, & White SA (2004). Parallel FoxP1 and FoxP2 expression in songbird and human brain predicts functional interaction. <span style="font-style: italic;">The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience, 24</span> (13), 3152-63 PMID: <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15056695" rev="review">15056695</a></span>NeuroKüzhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02219505720807067694noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8338654627878787277.post-72000772195420535272010-05-27T10:57:00.000-07:002010-05-27T11:30:15.881-07:00The empathetic vegetarian brainIt is often the case that meatless lifestyles are chosen for ethical reasons related to valuing animal rights. As a consequence of their food choices, vegetarians and vegans are often accused of and taunted for loving animals more than people. But do most vegetarians care less for fellow humans than animals, care for humans and animals equally, or care more for humans than animals but still care more for animals than omnivores do?<br />
<br />
A <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0010847;jsessionid=1D45D41FB5856596AF13F6446C738D54.ambra02">study</a> published yesterday in <span style="font-style: italic;">PLoS ONE</span> has attempted to parse out differences among omnivores, vegetarians and vegans in brain responses to human and animal suffering. The three groups were first given the <a href="http://glennrowe.net/BaronCohen/EmpathyQuotient/EmpathyQuotient.aspx">Empathy quotient</a> questionnaire, and it was determined that vegans and vegetarians scored significantly higher in empathy than omnivores. Next, the subjects had their brains scanned with fMRI as they viewed images of human suffering, animal suffering and “neutral” natural landscapes. Many differences were found among the brains of those with different feedings habits.<br />
<br />
Firstly, vegetarians and vegans had higher engagement than omnivores of “empathy related areas,” such as the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and left inferior frontal gyrus (IFG), while observing both human and animal suffering. This seems to suggest that there is a neural basis for those with meatless lifestyles having greater empathy for all living beings.<br />
<br />
However, when viewing animal suffering but not human suffering, meat-free subjects recruited additional empathy related areas in prefrontal and visual areas and reduced their right amygdala activity. This may be interpreted as evidence that vegetarians and vegans care more about the emotions of animals than those of humans. It is important to consider how the study was conducted, though, before reaching such a conclusion.<br />
<br />
The authors themselves note a couple of weaknesses in their design. The subjects’ brain activities while they viewed human or animal suffering were compared to the baseline/control condition of “neutral” scenes that did not include living beings, faces, or suffering of any kind, which are all factors that should have been considered. The subjects were also simply asked to look at the images of the different conditions without being asked about their thoughts or feelings, so it is impossible to confidently attribute their brain responses to specific emotions. But even if the demonstrated brain activity represented empathy, there is also the possibility that the subjects were desensitized to images of human suffering that appear daily on the news. Desensitization to an image does not necessarily reflect empathetic feelings toward fellow humans. So a claim that vegetarians/vegans love animals more than humans because they have more empathetic neural activity while viewing suffering animals than suffering humans is unsubstantiated at this point.<br />
<br />
Another major finding in this study was differences in neural representations of cognitive empathy between vegetarians and vegans. All of these subjects had chosen not to eat meat for ethical reasons, but the authors suggest that these differences in vegan and vegetarian brain responses indicate that the groups experience empathy for suffering differently, possibly due to differences in reasons for their diet choices. Again, these results should be taken as preliminary because of weaknesses in the study’s design.<br />
<br />
Overall the study is interesting, but it remains to be seen whether this will spark further research that will ultimately demonstrate findings significant enough to affect public policy and animal cruelty regulations. For now, we have <span style="font-style: italic;">a bit</span> of a clearer picture of the brain’s representation of empathy and <span style="font-style: italic;">a lot</span> of extra material for the never-ending ethical debate over man’s right to meat.<br />
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<span style="float: left; padding: 5px;"><a href="http://www.researchblogging.org/"><img alt="ResearchBlogging.org" src="http://www.researchblogging.org/public/citation_icons/rb2_large_gray.png" style="border: 0pt none;" /></a><br />
</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=PLoS+ONE&rft_id=info%3A%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=The+Brain+Functional+Networks+Associated+to+Human+and+Animal+Suffering+Differ+among+Omnivores%2C+Vegetarians+and+Vegans&rft.issn=&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=&rft.issue=&rft.spage=&rft.epage=&rft.artnum=&rft.au=Filippi+M&rft.au=Riccitelli+G&rft.au=Falini+A&rft.au=Di+Salle+F&rft.au=Vuilleumier+P&rft.au=Comi+G&rft.au=Rocca+MA&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Psychology%2CNeuroscience">Filippi M, Riccitelli G, Falini A, Di Salle F, Vuilleumier P, Comi G, & Rocca MA (2010). The Brain Functional Networks Associated to Human and Animal Suffering Differ among Omnivores, Vegetarians and Vegans <span style="font-style: italic;">PLoS ONE</span></span>NeuroKüzhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02219505720807067694noreply@blogger.com7tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8338654627878787277.post-73049430329111435272010-05-25T18:57:00.000-07:002010-07-18T15:57:45.211-07:00Mindreading by looking at the eyes: do we improve as we age?<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=Neuropsychologia&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20457166&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=Effects+of+aging+on+mindreading+ability+through+the+eyes%3A+An+fMRI+study.&rft.issn=0028-3932&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=&rft.issue=&rft.spage=&rft.epage=&rft.artnum=&rft.au=Castelli+I&rft.au=Baglio+F&rft.au=Blasi+V&rft.au=Alberoni+M&rft.au=Falini+A&rft.au=Liverta-Sempio+O&rft.au=Nemni+R&rft.au=Marchetti+A&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Psychology%2CNeuroscience">Do you think you’re good at understanding people by looking them in the eye? This skill is not only important for making money <a href="http://neurokuz.blogspot.com/2010/04/neuroscience-of-poker.html">playing poker</a> but for social situations, relationships and everyday professional interactions.</span><br />
<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=Neuropsychologia&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20457166&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=Effects+of+aging+on+mindreading+ability+through+the+eyes%3A+An+fMRI+study.&rft.issn=0028-3932&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=&rft.issue=&rft.spage=&rft.epage=&rft.artnum=&rft.au=Castelli+I&rft.au=Baglio+F&rft.au=Blasi+V&rft.au=Alberoni+M&rft.au=Falini+A&rft.au=Liverta-Sempio+O&rft.au=Nemni+R&rft.au=Marchetti+A&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Psychology%2CNeuroscience"><br />
Recently, scientific interest in mindreading by looking others in the eye has increased, mainly within the context of ‘theory of mind’ – the general capacity to understand one’s own and other people’s mental states (e.g. emotions, desires, beliefs). A test that is commonly administered is the ‘Reading the Mind in the Eyes’ test, which you can try yourself <a href="http://glennrowe.net/BaronCohen/Faces/EyesTest.aspx">here</a>. You may be surprised at how accurate your abilities are (I scored 26/36, which is considered within the normal range). But might it be possible that more experience can improve your score?</span><br />
<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=Neuropsychologia&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20457166&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=Effects+of+aging+on+mindreading+ability+through+the+eyes%3A+An+fMRI+study.&rft.issn=0028-3932&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=&rft.issue=&rft.spage=&rft.epage=&rft.artnum=&rft.au=Castelli+I&rft.au=Baglio+F&rft.au=Blasi+V&rft.au=Alberoni+M&rft.au=Falini+A&rft.au=Liverta-Sempio+O&rft.au=Nemni+R&rft.au=Marchetti+A&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Psychology%2CNeuroscience"><br />
A <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20457166">new study</a> in press in the journal <span style="font-style: italic;">Neuropsychologia</span> employed this test to study differences in abilities to mindread between younger and older individuals. Ilaria Castelli and colleagues used fMRI to study the brain’s responses of 21-30 year olds versus 60-78 year olds during performance of the Reading the Mind in the Eyes test. They found that young and old people did not differ in their abilities to understand mental states represented in the eyes, but the groups recruited different neural circuitry to complete the task. Some areas were activated only or more extensively in the younger group, and vice versa.</span><br />
<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=Neuropsychologia&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20457166&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=Effects+of+aging+on+mindreading+ability+through+the+eyes%3A+An+fMRI+study.&rft.issn=0028-3932&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=&rft.issue=&rft.spage=&rft.epage=&rft.artnum=&rft.au=Castelli+I&rft.au=Baglio+F&rft.au=Blasi+V&rft.au=Alberoni+M&rft.au=Falini+A&rft.au=Liverta-Sempio+O&rft.au=Nemni+R&rft.au=Marchetti+A&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Psychology%2CNeuroscience"><br />
So the results suggest that aging doesn’t help us understand others through the eyes. However, the researchers didn’t comment on controlling for amount of experience with people, which could be a factor that would lead to improvements in mindreading abilities. Also, since there were only 12 subjects in each group, the study doesn’t necessarily provide the final verdict on whether aging/experience can improve mindreading in the eyes. Nonetheless, the study may pave the way to more research on aging and theory of mind.</span><br />
<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=Neuropsychologia&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20457166&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=Effects+of+aging+on+mindreading+ability+through+the+eyes%3A+An+fMRI+study.&rft.issn=0028-3932&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=&rft.issue=&rft.spage=&rft.epage=&rft.artnum=&rft.au=Castelli+I&rft.au=Baglio+F&rft.au=Blasi+V&rft.au=Alberoni+M&rft.au=Falini+A&rft.au=Liverta-Sempio+O&rft.au=Nemni+R&rft.au=Marchetti+A&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Psychology%2CNeuroscience"><br />
Additionally, the study may provide insight to changes in the brain’s cognitive strategies as we age. Indeed some of the results appear to be in line with other fMRI studies on aging. For example, older subjects relied more on the frontal cortex, which is known to be more active in other cognitive tasks in elderly individuals.<br />
</span><br />
<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=Neuropsychologia&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20457166&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=Effects+of+aging+on+mindreading+ability+through+the+eyes%3A+An+fMRI+study.&rft.issn=0028-3932&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=&rft.issue=&rft.spage=&rft.epage=&rft.artnum=&rft.au=Castelli+I&rft.au=Baglio+F&rft.au=Blasi+V&rft.au=Alberoni+M&rft.au=Falini+A&rft.au=Liverta-Sempio+O&rft.au=Nemni+R&rft.au=Marchetti+A&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Psychology%2CNeuroscience">The authors also suggest that both groups used areas that are implicated in the (controversial) mirror neuron system devoted to empathy, but older people also recruited areas implicated in the mirror neuron system for language understanding. It should be understood, however, that the concepts and existences of these mirror neuron systems in humans are still subjects for <a href="http://neurokuz.blogspot.com/2010/04/mirror-neuron-conundrum-neuroblogging.html">debate</a>.</span><br />
<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=Neuropsychologia&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20457166&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=Effects+of+aging+on+mindreading+ability+through+the+eyes%3A+An+fMRI+study.&rft.issn=0028-3932&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=&rft.issue=&rft.spage=&rft.epage=&rft.artnum=&rft.au=Castelli+I&rft.au=Baglio+F&rft.au=Blasi+V&rft.au=Alberoni+M&rft.au=Falini+A&rft.au=Liverta-Sempio+O&rft.au=Nemni+R&rft.au=Marchetti+A&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Psychology%2CNeuroscience"><br />
Even though I think some of the results should be interpreted cautiously, I’m still a fan of this study. By applying the study of theory of mind to aging, we may be able to gain insight to the brain’s aging process and the mechanism of cognitive decline. Theory of mind studies can teach us more than just things that are cool and interesting – practical applications could come about in the future. </span><br />
<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=Neuropsychologia&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20457166&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=Effects+of+aging+on+mindreading+ability+through+the+eyes%3A+An+fMRI+study.&rft.issn=0028-3932&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=&rft.issue=&rft.spage=&rft.epage=&rft.artnum=&rft.au=Castelli+I&rft.au=Baglio+F&rft.au=Blasi+V&rft.au=Alberoni+M&rft.au=Falini+A&rft.au=Liverta-Sempio+O&rft.au=Nemni+R&rft.au=Marchetti+A&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Psychology%2CNeuroscience"><br />
</span><br />
<a href="http://www.researchblogging.org/" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="ResearchBlogging.org" src="http://www.researchblogging.org/public/citation_icons/rb2_large_gray.png" style="border: 0pt none;" /></a><br />
<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=Neuropsychologia&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20457166&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=Effects+of+aging+on+mindreading+ability+through+the+eyes%3A+An+fMRI+study.&rft.issn=0028-3932&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=&rft.issue=&rft.spage=&rft.epage=&rft.artnum=&rft.au=Castelli+I&rft.au=Baglio+F&rft.au=Blasi+V&rft.au=Alberoni+M&rft.au=Falini+A&rft.au=Liverta-Sempio+O&rft.au=Nemni+R&rft.au=Marchetti+A&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Psychology%2CNeuroscience">Castelli I, Baglio F, Blasi V, Alberoni M, Falini A, Liverta-Sempio O, Nemni R, & Marchetti A (2010). Effects of aging on mindreading ability through the eyes: An fMRI study. <span style="font-style: italic;">Neuropsychologia</span> PMID: <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20457166" rev="review">20457166</a></span><br />
<span style="float: left; padding: 5px;"></span>NeuroKüzhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02219505720807067694noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8338654627878787277.post-21226324668501264072010-05-20T13:08:00.000-07:002010-05-25T09:35:12.074-07:00A virtual slap in the face (isn't there an iPhone app for that?)<span style="float: left; padding: 5px;"></span><br />
<a href="http://researchblogging.org/news/?p=1399" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img alt="This post was chosen as an Editor's Selection for ResearchBlogging.org" src="http://www.researchblogging.org/public/citation_icons/rb_editors-selection.png" style="border: 0pt none;" /></a><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=PLoS+ONE&rft_id=info%3A%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=First+Person+Experience+of+Body+Transfer+in+Virtual+Reality&rft.issn=&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=&rft.issue=&rft.spage=&rft.epage=&rft.artnum=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.plosone.org%2Farticle%2Finfo%253Adoi%252F10.1371%252Fjournal.pone.0010564%3Bjsessionid%3D3749E225F0E213086C9B637E6EBA99D1&rft.au=Mel+Slater&rft.au=Bernhard+Spanlang&rft.au=Maria+V.+Sanchez-Vives&rft.au=Olaf+Blanke&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Computer+Science%2CPsychology%2CNeuroscience">Researchers from the group who recently reported the <a href="http://neurokuz.blogspot.com/2010/05/sense-of-body-ownership-and-3d-virtual.html">illusion of owning a virtual hand</a> have come out with a <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0010564;jsessionid=3749E225F0E213086C9B637E6EBA99D1">new study</a> on the sense of body ownership that has garnered media attention.</span><br />
<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=PLoS+ONE&rft_id=info%3A%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=First+Person+Experience+of+Body+Transfer+in+Virtual+Reality&rft.issn=&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=&rft.issue=&rft.spage=&rft.epage=&rft.artnum=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.plosone.org%2Farticle%2Finfo%253Adoi%252F10.1371%252Fjournal.pone.0010564%3Bjsessionid%3D3749E225F0E213086C9B637E6EBA99D1&rft.au=Mel+Slater&rft.au=Bernhard+Spanlang&rft.au=Maria+V.+Sanchez-Vives&rft.au=Olaf+Blanke&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Computer+Science%2CPsychology%2CNeuroscience"><br />
The study, conducted by Mel Slater and colleagues, is summarized as follows at <a href="http://news.yahoo.com/s/livescience/20100514/sc_livescience/ouchvirtualgirlslapsrealguys">livescience.com</a>:</span><br />
<blockquote><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=PLoS+ONE&rft_id=info%3A%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=First+Person+Experience+of+Body+Transfer+in+Virtual+Reality&rft.issn=&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=&rft.issue=&rft.spage=&rft.epage=&rft.artnum=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.plosone.org%2Farticle%2Finfo%253Adoi%252F10.1371%252Fjournal.pone.0010564%3Bjsessionid%3D3749E225F0E213086C9B637E6EBA99D1&rft.au=Mel+Slater&rft.au=Bernhard+Spanlang&rft.au=Maria+V.+Sanchez-Vives&rft.au=Olaf+Blanke&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Computer+Science%2CPsychology%2CNeuroscience">Male volunteers donned virtual reality goggles and took on the view of a virtual teenage girl sitting in a living room. The virtual girl's mother appeared to stroke her shoulder at the same time a real lab assistant stroked the shoulders of the volunteers.</span></blockquote><blockquote><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=PLoS+ONE&rft_id=info%3A%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=First+Person+Experience+of+Body+Transfer+in+Virtual+Reality&rft.issn=&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=&rft.issue=&rft.spage=&rft.epage=&rft.artnum=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.plosone.org%2Farticle%2Finfo%253Adoi%252F10.1371%252Fjournal.pone.0010564%3Bjsessionid%3D3749E225F0E213086C9B637E6EBA99D1&rft.au=Mel+Slater&rft.au=Bernhard+Spanlang&rft.au=Maria+V.+Sanchez-Vives&rft.au=Olaf+Blanke&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Computer+Science%2CPsychology%2CNeuroscience">Suddenly, the virtual mother slapped her daughter about the face three times with accompanying sound effects. The male volunteers all experienced a strong bodily reaction measured as rapid deceleration of their heart rates in response to the sudden threat, because they reacted to the virtual slap as if it were real.</span><br />
<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=PLoS+ONE&rft_id=info%3A%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=First+Person+Experience+of+Body+Transfer+in+Virtual+Reality&rft.issn=&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=&rft.issue=&rft.spage=&rft.epage=&rft.artnum=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.plosone.org%2Farticle%2Finfo%253Adoi%252F10.1371%252Fjournal.pone.0010564%3Bjsessionid%3D3749E225F0E213086C9B637E6EBA99D1&rft.au=Mel+Slater&rft.au=Bernhard+Spanlang&rft.au=Maria+V.+Sanchez-Vives&rft.au=Olaf+Blanke&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Computer+Science%2CPsychology%2CNeuroscience"><br />
...[The researchers] showed that a first-person perspective seems to play the biggest role in helping people inhabit a virtual body. When participants had more of a third-person perspective of the girl-slap (they didn't feel like they inhabited the girl's body), they didn't show the same physiological reactions.</span> <span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=PLoS+ONE&rft_id=info%3A%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=First+Person+Experience+of+Body+Transfer+in+Virtual+Reality&rft.issn=&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=&rft.issue=&rft.spage=&rft.epage=&rft.artnum=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.plosone.org%2Farticle%2Finfo%253Adoi%252F10.1371%252Fjournal.pone.0010564%3Bjsessionid%3D3749E225F0E213086C9B637E6EBA99D1&rft.au=Mel+Slater&rft.au=Bernhard+Spanlang&rft.au=Maria+V.+Sanchez-Vives&rft.au=Olaf+Blanke&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Computer+Science%2CPsychology%2CNeuroscience"></span></blockquote><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=PLoS+ONE&rft_id=info%3A%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=First+Person+Experience+of+Body+Transfer+in+Virtual+Reality&rft.issn=&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=&rft.issue=&rft.spage=&rft.epage=&rft.artnum=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.plosone.org%2Farticle%2Finfo%253Adoi%252F10.1371%252Fjournal.pone.0010564%3Bjsessionid%3D3749E225F0E213086C9B637E6EBA99D1&rft.au=Mel+Slater&rft.au=Bernhard+Spanlang&rft.au=Maria+V.+Sanchez-Vives&rft.au=Olaf+Blanke&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Computer+Science%2CPsychology%2CNeuroscience">This is pretty cool, but the findings just confirm what all hardcore video gamers already know. ‘First person shooter’ games are largely successful because they make players feel like they are actually part of the warzone displayed on the screen. Gamers would probably report similar feelings of body transfer if they were administered the questionnaires given to subjects in this experiment, and if you’ve ever played a first-person perspective video game, you’ve probably experienced fluctuations in your heart rate when being threatened by enemies.</span><br />
<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=PLoS+ONE&rft_id=info%3A%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=First+Person+Experience+of+Body+Transfer+in+Virtual+Reality&rft.issn=&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=&rft.issue=&rft.spage=&rft.epage=&rft.artnum=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.plosone.org%2Farticle%2Finfo%253Adoi%252F10.1371%252Fjournal.pone.0010564%3Bjsessionid%3D3749E225F0E213086C9B637E6EBA99D1&rft.au=Mel+Slater&rft.au=Bernhard+Spanlang&rft.au=Maria+V.+Sanchez-Vives&rft.au=Olaf+Blanke&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Computer+Science%2CPsychology%2CNeuroscience"><br />
News reports on this study are calling it a demonstration of an out-of-body experience, but whether the findings should be considered in such a way is up for debate. An out-of-body experience is often defined as the experience in which a person who is awake sees his or her body from a location outside the physical body. A <a href="http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/short/317/5841/1048">2007 study</a> by H. Henrik Ehrsson, published in <i>Science</i>, demonstrates a much more convincing induction of an out-of-body experience. In this study, subjects wore head-mounted video displays that showed them a live film recorded by video cameras behind the subjects. Subjects thus observed their own backs from the perspective of someone sitting behind, and they reported experiences of being outside their own bodies and observing themselves.</span><br />
<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=PLoS+ONE&rft_id=info%3A%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=First+Person+Experience+of+Body+Transfer+in+Virtual+Reality&rft.issn=&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=&rft.issue=&rft.spage=&rft.epage=&rft.artnum=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.plosone.org%2Farticle%2Finfo%253Adoi%252F10.1371%252Fjournal.pone.0010564%3Bjsessionid%3D3749E225F0E213086C9B637E6EBA99D1&rft.au=Mel+Slater&rft.au=Bernhard+Spanlang&rft.au=Maria+V.+Sanchez-Vives&rft.au=Olaf+Blanke&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Computer+Science%2CPsychology%2CNeuroscience"><br />
So the new study by Slater and colleagues on virtual reality and the sense of body ownership is not necessarily a vivid demonstration of an out-of-body experience. Furthermore, the ‘slap-in-the-face’ design and the transfer of male body ownership to a virtual female that make interesting headlines (including the title of this article) are not the significant parts of the study. If this study is to make an impact on future work, it will be its introduction of the first-person video game (or ‘immersive virtual reality’) paradigm to research on the concept of self-consciousness.</span><br />
<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=PLoS+ONE&rft_id=info%3A%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=First+Person+Experience+of+Body+Transfer+in+Virtual+Reality&rft.issn=&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=&rft.issue=&rft.spage=&rft.epage=&rft.artnum=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.plosone.org%2Farticle%2Finfo%253Adoi%252F10.1371%252Fjournal.pone.0010564%3Bjsessionid%3D3749E225F0E213086C9B637E6EBA99D1&rft.au=Mel+Slater&rft.au=Bernhard+Spanlang&rft.au=Maria+V.+Sanchez-Vives&rft.au=Olaf+Blanke&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Computer+Science%2CPsychology%2CNeuroscience"><br />
The study importantly demonstrates that the sense of body ownership is more dependent on visual perspective (e.g. first-person or third-person) than it is on sensations of touch and movement. Combining this design with neuroimaging and neurophysiology techniques may prove useful in the development of technologies that use virtual reality for brain training therapeutic strategies in cases of neurological disorders and/or injuries and amputations. We’re currently far away from these sorts of applications, but at least the door to immersive virtual reality in neuroscience research is now open.<br />
</span><br />
<b>References:</b><br />
<br />
<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=PLoS+ONE&rft_id=info%3A%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=First+Person+Experience+of+Body+Transfer+in+Virtual+Reality&rft.issn=&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=&rft.issue=&rft.spage=&rft.epage=&rft.artnum=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.plosone.org%2Farticle%2Finfo%253Adoi%252F10.1371%252Fjournal.pone.0010564%3Bjsessionid%3D3749E225F0E213086C9B637E6EBA99D1&rft.au=Mel+Slater&rft.au=Bernhard+Spanlang&rft.au=Maria+V.+Sanchez-Vives&rft.au=Olaf+Blanke&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Computer+Science%2CPsychology%2CNeuroscience">Mel Slater, Bernhard Spanlang, Maria V. Sanchez-Vives, Olaf Blanke (2010). First Person Experience of Body Transfer in Virtual Reality <span style="font-style: italic;">PLoS ONE</span></span><br />
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<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=Science+%28New+York%2C+N.Y.%29&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17717177&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=The+experimental+induction+of+out-of-body+experiences.&rft.issn=0036-8075&rft.date=2007&rft.volume=317&rft.issue=5841&rft.spage=1048&rft.epage=&rft.artnum=&rft.au=Ehrsson+HH&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Computer+Science%2CPsychology%2CNeuroscience">Ehrsson HH (2007). The experimental induction of out-of-body experiences. <span style="font-style: italic;">Science (New York, N.Y.), 317</span> (5841) PMID: <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17717177" rev="review">17717177</a></span>NeuroKüzhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02219505720807067694noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8338654627878787277.post-58378369611543639052010-05-17T21:24:00.000-07:002010-05-17T21:24:11.070-07:00The neural basis of déjà vuReading a book for the second time can be an enlightening experience. At the same time, aspects of this experience can be confusing. During a second visit to a work previously read I suspect that to a degree everyone plays a game that involves trying to determine which parts of the story you remember well and which parts you completely forgot. But there are also parts that lie somewhere in the middle; it is these parts that boggle our minds by leaving us uncertain of whether or not the details are familiar to us. Perhaps a nuance in the storyline that strikes you as familiar is something you actually skimmed over and ignored the first time you read the book. You have some awareness of your ignorance and begin to question your feeling of familiarity.<br />
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This clash of evaluations lies at the heart of déjà vu, the experience of recognizing a situation as familiar while simultaneously being aware that the situation may not have actually occurred in the past. Chris Moulin and Akira O’Connor, researchers who have attempted to study déjà vu in their laboratory, have recently published a <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20425276">paper</a> outlining the current state and challenges of scientific research on this inherently subjective phenomenon. They discuss two broad categories of recent research: déjà vu in clinical populations (e.g. associations with epilepsy and dementia), and déjà vu in nonclinical populations.<br />
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Importantly, Moulin and O’Connor point out that these categories may be distinct, and that caution should be exerted when making comparisons between the two. A lot of research on déjà vu in clinical populations is not actually study of déjà vu, but of a slightly different experience called <i>déjà vecu</i> (also known as ‘recollective confabulation’) in older adults with dementia. <i>Déjà vecu</i> instances involve inappropriate feelings of familiarity, like in déjà vu, but the feelings are not necessarily accompanied by awareness that it is inappropriate. The validity of extending evidence from studies on <i>déjà vecu</i> to the casual experience of déjà vu is questionable.<br />
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However, there has been a movement in experimental cognitive psychology toward studying déjà vu by generating the phenomenon in nonclinical populations. These studies use techniques such as hypnotic suggestion and familiarity questionnaires about images that are previously shown or not shown to subjects. There are few studies using these techniques, and the applicability to déjà vu experiences in everyday life is still being questioned.<br />
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So a solid scientific theory of déjà vu is still nonexistent. But there have been some recent neuroscientific investigations that have shed light on the neural basis of déjà vu. Deep brain stimulation and brain lesions studies both implicate areas in the mesial temporal cortex in the generation of déjà vu. Moulin and O’Connor argue that this doesn’t necessarily mean we can label this region as the ‘déjà vu cortex’ of the brain; rather, if we are to make progress in understanding déjà vu in the brain, we should examine how mesial temporal structures interact with whole neural networks during instances of déjà vu. For example, the authors hypothesize that “mesial temporal structures may aberrantly indicate a sensation of familiarity despite the rest of the hippocampo-cortical network indicating the overarching nonrecognition state that ultimately presides.”<br />
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In other words, when you’re re-reading a book or article that was edited with a minor detail after you read it the first time, your mesial temporal regions are telling you that the minor detail is familiar, but the rest of your brain is telling you that you never read that minor detail the first time. What’s happening in the rest of the brain, and why the brain decides to confuse you like this in the first place are questions for further research. That means that in the labs of Moulin, O’Connor and déjà vu researchers alike, it will be, in the famous words of Yogi Berra, “déjà vu all over again.”<br />
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<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=Current+psychiatry+reports&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20425276&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=Recognition+without+identification%2C+erroneous+familiarity%2C+and+d%C3%A9j%C3%A0+vu.&rft.issn=1523-3812&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=3&rft.spage=165&rft.epage=73&rft.artnum=&rft.au=O%27Connor+AR&rft.au=Moulin+CJ&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Psychology%2CNeuroscience">O'Connor AR, & Moulin CJ (2010). Recognition without identification, erroneous familiarity, and déjà vu. <span style="font-style: italic;">Current psychiatry reports, 12</span> (3), 165-73 PMID: <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20425276" rev="review">20425276</a></span>NeuroKüzhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02219505720807067694noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8338654627878787277.post-83724185208424826442010-05-15T13:12:00.000-07:002010-05-18T10:51:33.975-07:00Type of music influences exercise performance<span style="padding: 5px; float: left;"><a href="http://researchblogging.org/news/?p=1376"><img alt="This post was chosen as an Editor's Selection for ResearchBlogging.org" src="http://www.researchblogging.org/public/citation_icons/rb_editors-selection.png" style="border: 0pt none ;" /></a></span>If you work out, and you like to listen to music while you work out, you probably have a set of favourite songs or artists that you always listen to when exercising. You might even have a playlist on your iPod called ‘running music,’ ‘lifting tunes,’ or ‘workout beatz.’ Personally, as a heavy metal fan, music from bands like Metallica and Iron Maiden get me focused during a workout. I have a playlist called ‘Heart attack music’ for times that I need the heaviest of the heavy screamer bands to get me pumped up enough to run that extra mile.<br /><br />But no matter what type of music you prefer, perceived beneficial effects of listening to your favourite music while exercising are probably real. A new <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20391890">study</a> showed that men who cycled at high-intensity while listening to preferred music were able to go a greater distance and had lower ratings of perceived exertion than when they listened to non-preferred music or no music. The study was unfortunately limited in that it only included 15 subjects and all were male, but the findings are quite compelling – subjects were able to cycle for an average of 9.8km when they listened to preferred music as opposed to 7.1km when they listened to non-preferred music (they went 7.7km when listening to no music).<br /><br />The researchers didn’t report what type of music the subjects preferred, but it is mentioned that faster tempos in songs (a mean rhythm of 117 beats/min) were selected over slower tempos (95 beats/min). These faster tunes were probably chosen to match the elevated heart rates induced by high intensity cycling. However, a fair comparison between ‘preferred’ and ‘non-preferred’ music should control for the effect of tempo, which is a factor that the authors of this study failed to take into account.<br /><br />Regardless, music can have profound effects on emotion and mood, so it is believable that preferred music can pump us up and encourage physical activity. The authors of this study reason that music can distract an exerciser’s attention from perception of physical sensations, giving rise to feelings of less perceived exertion and less fatigue. Perhaps this is just what it is that keeps us going when listening to our favourite music as opposed to music we’re uninterested in. When music is non-preferred, we try to block it out or ignore it, leading to greater attention to pain and lactic acid build-up in our muscles. When we love the song we’re listening to, and we get really into the intricacies of the beat and melody, we ignore physical pain. If it were possible to put someone in a brain scanner while they exercise and listen to their favourite music, it would be predicted that their pain centres (e.g. the insular cortex) would be less active than during exercise with boring music.<br /><br />So the lesson is this: bring your iPod to the gym, because listening to Justin Bieber’s latest hit (or other cheesy top 40 songs that are played at most facilities) while exercising can literally be painful.<br /><br />References:<br /><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=Perceptual+and+motor+skills&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20391890&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=Effects+of+preferred+and+nonpreferred+music+on+continuous+cycling+exercise+performance.&rft.issn=0031-5125&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=110&rft.issue=1&rft.spage=257&rft.epage=64&rft.artnum=&rft.au=Nakamura+PM&rft.au=Pereira+G&rft.au=Papini+CB&rft.au=Nakamura+FY&rft.au=Kokubun+E&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Psychology%2CNeuroscience">Nakamura PM, Pereira G, Papini CB, Nakamura FY, & Kokubun E (2010). Effects of preferred and nonpreferred music on continuous cycling exercise performance. <span style="font-style: italic;">Perceptual and motor skills, 110</span> (1), 257-64 PMID: <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20391890" rev="review">20391890</a></span>NeuroKüzhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02219505720807067694noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8338654627878787277.post-32896486760399515362010-05-11T12:39:00.000-07:002010-05-11T12:48:05.646-07:00Empathy for pain in doctors versus synesthetesA common warning given to students interested in a career in medicine is “you better have a tough stomach.” Luckily for physician-wannabes who tense up at the sight of blood, a new <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20080194">study</a> published in <span style="font-style: italic;">NeuroImage</span> suggests that it may be possible to change your brain’s response to watching pain being inflicted on others. The findings are nicely summarized at the <a href="http://bps-research-digest.blogspot.com/2010/05/doctors-are-desensitised-to-other.html">BPS Research Digest</a> blog:<br /><blockquote>Decety's team used electroencephalography (EEG) to monitor the electrical activity arising from the brains of 15 doctors and 15 controls while they looked at dozens of static pictures of people being pricked in various body parts by a needle or prodded by a cotton bud.<br /><br />When a person looks at someone else in pain, their EEG response typically shows two distinct characteristics: a frontal component after 110ms, which is thought to reflect an automatic burst of empathy, and a more central, parietal component after about 350ms, which reflects a conscious evaluation of what's been seen.<br /><br />As expected, the control participants showed an enhanced early and later phase EEG response to the needle pictures compared with the cotton bud pictures. The doctors, by contrast, showed no difference in brain response to the two categories of picture.</blockquote>This means that doctors are essentially the opposite of people who experience synesthesia for pain, a condition I previously <a href="http://neurokuz.blogspot.com/2010/04/synesthesia-of-empathy-for-pain.html">wrote about</a>. Synesthesia for pain, the physical experience of pain induced by simply viewing pain in another, has mainly been identified in rare ‘phantom limb’ patients who have had an amputation but still experience sensations in the absent limb. If you can recall, certain areas of the brain are active when pain is felt: some areas involving emotion/affective processing, some areas involving cognition/evaluation, and other areas involving the actual sensation of pain. It is hypothesized that pain synesthetes have overly-sensitive responses to viewing pain in brain regions that are responsible for conscious pain perception.<br /><br />In contrast, Decety’s new study suggests that doctors have under-active responses in the whole pain matrix. If this under-active response can be acquired by training (e.g. assisting surgeries in medical school), perhaps pain synesthetes could make their empathetic pain experiences go away by repeatedly viewing needles being pressed into others. However, this might not be the best treatment approach as it would probably be exceptionally painful for the synesthete.<br /><br />Pain synesthesia is acquired (usually after injury/amputation), unlike most other identified forms of synesthesia in which people are supposedly born experiencing numbers as colours or sounds as tastes. Perhaps this means pain synesthesia can be cured as well.<br /><br /><span style="float: left; padding: 5px;"><a href="http://www.researchblogging.org/"><img alt="ResearchBlogging.org" src="http://www.researchblogging.org/public/citation_icons/rb2_large_gray.png" style="border: 0pt none;" /></a></span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=NeuroImage&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20080194&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=Physicians+down-regulate+their+pain+empathy+response%3A+an+event-related+brain+potential+study.&rft.issn=1053-8119&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=4&rft.spage=1676&rft.epage=82&rft.artnum=&rft.au=Decety+J&rft.au=Yang+CY&rft.au=Cheng+Y&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Neuroscience">Decety J, Yang CY, & Cheng Y (2010). Physicians down-regulate their pain empathy response: an event-related brain potential study. <span style="font-style: italic;">NeuroImage, 50</span> (4), 1676-82 PMID: <a rev="review" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20080194">20080194</a></span><br /><br /><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=Neuroscience+and+biobehavioral+reviews&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19857517&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=Shared+pain%3A+from+empathy+to+synaesthesia.&rft.issn=0149-7634&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=4&rft.spage=500&rft.epage=12&rft.artnum=&rft.au=Fitzgibbon+BM&rft.au=Giummarra+MJ&rft.au=Georgiou-Karistianis+N&rft.au=Enticott+PG&rft.au=Bradshaw+JL&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Neuroscience">Fitzgibbon BM, Giummarra MJ, Georgiou-Karistianis N, Enticott PG, & Bradshaw JL (2010). Shared pain: from empathy to synaesthesia. <span style="font-style: italic;">Neuroscience and biobehavioral reviews, 34</span> (4), 500-12 PMID: <a rev="review" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19857517">19857517</a></span>NeuroKüzhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02219505720807067694noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8338654627878787277.post-41923626778517164292010-05-09T15:29:00.000-07:002010-06-20T21:06:22.389-07:00The sense of body ownership and 3D virtual realityThe classic ‘rubber hand illusion’ gives profound insight to our brain’s ability to confuse the real and living with the inanimate. Originally <a href="http://www.pni.princeton.edu/ncc/publications/1998/BotvinickCohen1998Nature.pdf">reported</a> by Matthew Botvinick and Jonathan Cohen in 1998, when people have their hand hidden from view and watch a dummy hand being stroked with a paintbrush while their hidden hand is also stroked, they feel the stroke to be coming from the dummy hand rather than their real hand.<br /><br />This illusion demonstrates that our perception of body-part ownership is malleable, complementing evidence I mentioned in a <a href="http://neurokuz.blogspot.com/2010/04/synesthesia-of-empathy-for-pain.html">previous post</a> suggesting that patients with amputated limbs can still feel pain in their missing limbs. Studies of the rubber-hand illusion have helped us understand how we recognize our body parts and how that might change if we were to lose or replace a body part. Moreover, they have helped us understand the relationships among vision, somatosensation (the sense of touch) and proprioception (the sense of body-part location).<br /><br />However, it turns out that the illusion doesn’t only need to be studied with rubber hands – it can also be induced with a virtual representation of hands. In this ‘<a href="http://frontiersin.org/neuroscience/humanneuroscience/paper/10.3389/neuro.09/006.2008/">virtual arm illusion</a>,’ people who view a 3D virtual arm instead of a rubber arm, under the same conditions as Botvinick and Cohen’s illusion, confuse their real arm with the arm displayed in virtual reality. Since it easier to experimentally manipulate virtual images and scenes than a rubber object, the virtual arm illusion could be used as an important tool to build on findings from rubber hand studies.<br /><br />Indeed, in a <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0010381">new study</a> by the researchers who originally reported the virtual arm illusion, they demonstrate that the illusion extends beyond the sense of touch. Subjects who had their hand blinded from view wore 3D goggles and watched a virtual hand move either in synchrony or asynchrony with their actual hand movement. The subjects felt a sense of ownership over the virtual hand when it was moving in synchrony with real hand movement, but they felt that they had significantly less control over the virtual hand with their real hand was moving differently.<br /><br />The authors suggest that their findings could provide insight to the use of virtual bodies in therapies and rehabilitation. But what about this (slightly more commercially-driven) application: 3D movies where you feel like you are literally part of the film, moving around a scene, feeling yourself touching supposedly virtual objects, supposedly virtual <span style="font-style: italic;">people</span>??<br /><br />Toying with our sense of body ownership using virtual manipulations could further bridge the fading gap between science-fiction and reality. And help us understand the living electricity encased in our skulls along the way.<br /><span style="float: left; padding: 5px;"><a href="http://www.researchblogging.org/"><img alt="ResearchBlogging.org" src="http://www.researchblogging.org/public/citation_icons/rb2_large_gray.png" style="border: 0pt none;" /></a></span><br /><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=PloS+one&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20454463&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=Virtual+hand+illusion+induced+by+visuomotor+correlations.&rft.issn=&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=4&rft.spage=&rft.epage=&rft.artnum=&rft.au=Sanchez-Vives+MV&rft.au=Spanlang+B&rft.au=Frisoli+A&rft.au=Bergamasco+M&rft.au=Slater+M&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Computer+Science%2CPsychology%2CNeuroscience">Sanchez-Vives MV, Spanlang B, Frisoli A, Bergamasco M, & Slater M (2010). Virtual hand illusion induced by visuomotor correlations. <span style="font-style: italic;">PloS one, 5</span> (4) PMID: <a rev="review" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20454463">20454463</a></span>NeuroKüzhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02219505720807067694noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8338654627878787277.post-49531433402255651632010-05-06T08:17:00.000-07:002010-05-06T08:44:10.489-07:00fMRI lie-detection evidence rejected in courtConveniently in keeping with the theme of my last post on <a href="http://neurokuz.blogspot.com/2010/05/lie-detection-and-neurolaw-do-brain.html">fMRI for lie-detection</a> in law, a <a href="http://www.wired.com/wiredscience/2010/05/fmri-lie-detection-civil/">story</a> appeared on Wired explaining that a lie-detection brain scan could be used as evidence court for the first time.<br /><blockquote>A Brooklyn attorney hopes to break new ground this week when he offers a brain scan as evidence that a key witness in a civil trial is telling the truth, Wired.com has learned.<br />If the fMRI scan is admitted, it would be a legal first in the United States and could have major consequences for the future of neuroscience in court.<br /><br />The lawyer, David Levin, wants to use that evidence to break a he-said/she-said stalemate in an employer-retaliation case. He’s representing Cynette Wilson, a woman who claims that after she complained to temp agency CoreStaff Services about sexual harassment at a job site, she no longer received good assignments. Another worker at CoreStaff claims he heard her supervisor say that she should not be placed on jobs because of her complaint. The supervisor denies that he said anything of the sort.<br /><br />So, Levin had the coworker undergo an fMRI brain scan by the company Cephos, which claims to provide “independent, scientific validation that someone is telling the truth.”</blockquote>This attempt was <a href="http://blogs.law.stanford.edu/lawandbiosciences/2010/05/05/breaking-news-fmri-lie-detection-evidence-excluded-in-ny-court-2/">rejected</a> by the judge, on the grounds that assessing credibility is the role of the jury, not an expert witness. The judge did even seek to determine how reliable fMRI lie-detection is, and the reliability was not compared to that of tradition<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_xwcoDFM3XL0/S-LgPPS2ofI/AAAAAAAAACU/KFKJ3J7Tpgw/s1600/fmri_lie_detection.jpg"><img style="float: right; margin: 0pt 0pt 10px 10px; cursor: pointer; width: 320px; height: 213px;" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_xwcoDFM3XL0/S-LgPPS2ofI/AAAAAAAAACU/KFKJ3J7Tpgw/s320/fmri_lie_detection.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5468179449989472754" border="0" /></a>al methods (e.g. letting the jury decide).<br /><br />Thus this case did not even reach the point that <a href="http://neurokuz.blogspot.com/2010/05/lie-detection-and-neurolaw-do-brain.html">Frederick Schauer</a> discusses when he argues that whether fMRI has a place in the courtroom should be determined by legal rather than scientific standards. It is well known that the lie-detection abilities of a jury are weak and unreliable. If the fMRI evidence increased the objectivity at all in judging the witness in this case, it might have made sense to allow the evidence.<br /><br />However, it looks like we’re still stuck clinging to traditional lie-detection methods, not even willing to question if a new process makes more sense. Still I wouldn't dare suggest that fMRI has a place in the courtroom in the absence of comprehensive peer-reviewed research examining this application. The fMRI evidence was probably garbage in this case – but that doesn’t mean it didn’t deserve questioning, and it doesn’t mean fMRI evidence will be garbage in every future case. Brain scans performed by companies with a financial stake in the outcome should especially be taken with a grain of salt, but we’re likely to see more detailed assessments of this type of evidence in future court cases.NeuroKüzhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02219505720807067694noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8338654627878787277.post-76512523602853899172010-05-04T09:13:00.000-07:002010-06-20T21:11:39.592-07:00Lie-detection and neurolaw: do brain scans have a place in the courtroom?The legal application of neuroimaging for lie-detection in courtrooms has been criticized by scientists on a number of grounds. Firstly, results of fMRI studies on experimental subjects such as undergraduate students cannot necessarily be applied to people offering evidence in a court. Secondly, lie-detection neuroimaging studies are designed such that lies are ‘instructed,’ meaning that a lie in the laboratory is not actually a real lie. Thirdly, much of the research on lie-detection with fMRI has been conducted by private companies, such as <a href="http://noliemri.com/">No Lie MRI</a>, who do not publish their findings in peer-reviewed journals and who hire scientists with vested interests in study outcomes.<br /><br />Despite these criticisms, an <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20060772">article</a> by law professor Frederick Shauer recently appeared in <span style="font-style: italic;">Trends in Cognitive Sciences</span>, arguing that the suitability of neuroimaging as a tool for the courtroom should be determined according to legal and not scientific standards. Principle among his arguments is the claim that current legal methods of lie-detection are not scientifically valid in any sense, and if neuroimaging provides even a slightly higher validity, it should be used in legal cases. Schauer points out that “[r]esearch shows that ordinary people’s ability to distinguish truth from lies rarely rises above random, and juries are unlikely to do better.” He follows this up by stating that “...the admissibility of neural lie-detection evidence must be based on an evaluation of the realistic alternatives within the legal system and not on a non-comparative assessment of whether neural lie-detection meets the standards that scientists use for scientific purposes.”<br /><br />The argument is certainly interesting, and scientists should be able to appreciate it. Scientists are trained to be cautious and skeptical, only accepting of findings that have just a 5% or lower chance of being attributed to error. These standards are often even higher for fMRI studies. However, if a jury can correctly detect lies only 50% of the time, brain scans that are right 60% of the time are simply more reliable.<br /><br />Yes, there may be differences between experimental subjects telling instructed lies and real-life defendants being put to the test. But Schauer argues that “...if the ease of telling an instructed lie in the laboratory correlates with the ease of telling a real lie outside the laboratory, research on instructed lies is no longer irrelevant to detecting real lies.”<br /><br />This has not yet been demonstrated, and Schauer admits that the use of fMRI for lie-detection is probably unwarranted at this point. Several obstacles first need to be overcome, but fMRI in law seems to hold newfound promise in the face of scientific criticism when Schauer’s idea of comparing neuroimaging to current, perhaps less effective methods of lie-detection, are taken into consideration.<br /><br />Still, scientists who understand the proper use of fMRI need to develop certain methods to ensure that the lie-detection application is practical and effective. Typically found in many neuroimaging studies are ‘outlier’ subjects whose results do not conform to what is found in other subjects. Sometimes the outlier did not perform the task correctly, resulting in brain activity reflecting attention to the wrong stimuli or a lack of attention to the task altogether. A smart liar might be able to play with his/her attention to the lie-detection task at hand, resulting in skewed data. Since fMRI studies typically require responses that involve button presses rather than speech, intentional distractive thoughts may be more readily enabled.<br /><br />More fMRI studies on real-life-style lie-detection need to be conducted before a courtroom introduction is warranted. But over-skepticism is unwarranted when lie-detection systems of today’s courts are flawed and unreliable.<br /><br /><span style="float: left; padding: 5px;"><a href="http://www.researchblogging.org/"><img alt="ResearchBlogging.org" src="http://www.researchblogging.org/public/citation_icons/rb2_large_gray.png" style="border: 0pt none;" /></a></span><br /><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.jtitle=Trends+in+cognitive+sciences&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20060772&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fresearchblogging.org&rft.atitle=Neuroscience%2C+lie-detection%2C+and+the+law%3A+contrary+to+the+prevailing+view%2C+the+suitability+of+brain-based+lie-detection+for+courtroom+or+forensic+use+should+be+determined+according+to+legal+and+not+scientific+standards.&rft.issn=1364-6613&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=3&rft.spage=101&rft.epage=3&rft.artnum=&rft.au=Schauer+F&rfe_dat=bpr3.included=1;bpr3.tags=Psychology%2CSocial+Science%2CNeuroscience%2CLaw">Schauer F (2010). Neuroscience, lie-detection, and the law: contrary to the prevailing view, the suitability of brain-based lie-detection for courtroom or forensic use should be determined according to legal and not scientific standards. <span style="font-style: italic;">Trends in cognitive sciences, 14</span> (3), 101-3 PMID: <a rev="review" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20060772">20060772</a></span>NeuroKüzhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02219505720807067694noreply@blogger.com0